THE 


CHEMISTS'  MANUAL: 


PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  CHEMISTRY, 


QUALITATIVE  AND  QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS, 

STOICHIOMETRY,     BLOWPIPE     ANALYSIS,     MINERALOGY, 

ASSAYING,    TOXICOLOGY,    ETC.,    ETC.,    ETC. 


BY 

HENRY    A.    MOTT,    JR.,    KM.,   PH.D., 
•  i 

MINING  ENGINEER  AND  ANALYTICAL  CHEMIST,  MEMBER  OF  THE  AMERICAN  CHEMICAL 

SOCIETT,  MEMBER  OP  THE  NEW  YORK  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES,  FELLOW  OF 

THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY,  ETC.,  ETC.,  ETC. 


£istsfr£ 


f /  NEW    YORK: 

D.    VAN    NOSTRAND,    PUBLISHER, 

23  MURRAY  STREET  &  27  WARREN  STREET. 


1877. 


UNIVERSITY 


Copyright,  1877,  by  Henry  A.  Mott,  Jr. 


Electrotyped  by 
SMITH    &    McDOUGAL. 


Printed  by 
J.   J.   LITTLE    &    CO. 


ri^  H  E  literature  of  Analytical  Chemistry,  in  the  various 
-*-  branches  of  qualitative,  quantitative,  blowpipe  and  tech- 
nical analysis,  $nd  assaying,  has  expanded  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  make  it  impossible  for  students,  and  even  for  most  pro- 
fessional chemists,  to  possess  a  complete  library  in  these  depart- 
ments of  the  science :  moreover,  much  of  the  literature  is  sealed 
to  many  chemists  by  being  published  in  French  and  German, 
or  in  journals  and  transactions  of  Societies  which  are  inac- 
cessible. A  further  embarrassment  arises  from  the  multiplicity 
of  methods  given  in  special  works,  from  which  few  can  select 
without  first  testing  several. 

This  carefully  prepared  Manual  of  Dr.  MOTT  will  prove 
especially  valuable,  as  containing  a  judicious  selection  of  the 
most  important  methods,  most  of  which  have  been  tested  by 
laboratory  experience,  and  found  to  give  satisfactory  results. 
These  are  presented  in  a  concise  form,  with  reference  to  original 
authors.  The  numerous  tables  of  constants  will  also  be  found 
of  great  value. 

This  work  will  possess  a  special  value  for  the  student  and 
laboratory  worker,  and  will  serve  as  a  useful  reference  book  for 
the  general  scientific  reader. 

CHAS.  F.  CHANDLEB,  PH.D.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.C.S.,  ETC. 


PREFACE. 


N"  the  principle  that  every  scientific  man  "  should  compile 
his  own  pocket-book,  as  he  proceeds  in  study  and  prac- 
tice, to  suit  his  particular  business,"  the  Author  accumulated 
from  time  to  time  a  large  number  of  valuable  notes  and  tables, 
which  became  too  voluminous  to  be  carried  in  the  pocket,  and 
soon  grew  in  the  form  of  manuscript.  After  repeated  requests 
by  a  number  of  prominent  scientific  men,  the  Author  has 
decided  to  present  the  manuscript,  greatly  enlarged  and  im- 
proved, to  the  public.  The  object  of  the  Author  has  been  to 
accumulate  only  matter  which  has  a  practical  value  attached 
to  it. 

Under  the  Department  of  Qualitative  Analysis,  the  Author 
has  adopted  the  method  or  classification  presented  in  a  work 
commenced  by  Tuttle  and  Chandler,  and  has  consulted  various 
works  on  the  subject,  especially  Fresenius'  Qualitative  Analysis 
and  "Watts'  Dictionary  of  Chemistry.  It  has  been  the  object  of 
the  Author  to  furnish  formulae  for  all  compounds  and  precipi- 
tates considered,  as  they  have  recently  been  determined.  The 
Schemes  presented  will  be  found  very  practicable  and  accurate, 
as  has  been  demonstrated  by  frequent  use. 

Under  the  Department  of  Mineralogy,  only  the  principal 
minerals  of  those  elements  which  have  found  use  in  the  Arts 
are  considered.  Free  use  has  been  made  of  Dana's  Mineralogy, 
as  also  Egleston's  Lectures  on  Mineralogy. 


vi  PREFACE. 

V 

Under  the  Department  of  Quantitative  Analysis,  Schemes 
are  presented  for  the  most  frequent  occurring  compounds  met 
with  in  every-day  analyses,  all  of  which  have  been  frequently 
tested  and  found  accurate. 

Under  the  Department  of  Assaying,  brief  and  accurate  meth- 
ods are  described  for  the  assay  of  those  ores  usually  met  with 
in  the  laboratory.  In  preparing  the  method  described  for  the 
assay  of  gold  and  silver  ores,  the  Author  was  greatly  assisted 
by  a  valuable  pamphlet  (reprint  from  the  "  American  Chemist " 
for  1870)  by  T.  M.  Blossom,  E.M. 

In  the  Miscellaneous  Department,  the  Author  has  compiled 
a  large  number  of  tables  which  cannot  help  but  possess  a  prac- 
tical value. 

It  has  been  the  intention  of  the  Author  to  furnish  the  author- 
ity for  all  analyses  and  tables  presented  in  this  work;  and  if 
any  have  been  omitted,  by  communicating  direct  to  the  Author, 
all  claims  will  be  promptly  acknowledged. 

The  various  subjects  considered  in  this  work  opens  a  channel 
for  it  among  Chemists,  Pharmaceutists,  Physicians,  and  Scien- 
tific men  in  general. 

The  Author  is  quite  familiar  with  the  fact  that  a  work  of 
this  character  must  open  much  room  for  criticism;  still  he 
hopes  it  will  prove  on  the  whole  acceptable  to  all. 

AUTHOK, 
98  WALL  STREET,  Feb.  7,  1877. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGK 

TABLES  OF  THE  ELEMENTS 3,  4,  5,  6 

SPECIFIC  HEATS 7, 10 

QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS 11 

DEPORTMENT  OF  THE  METALS  AND  THEIR  SALTS  WITH 

REAGENTS 13-154 

SCHEME  FOR  QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS 138-146 

DETECTION  OF  ACIDS 147-154 

TABLE  OF  ANALYTICAL  CHEMISTRY 155-169 

ZETTNOW'S  SCHEME  FOR  QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS 170 

SCHEME  FOR  THE  ALKALOIDS 172 

REACTIONS  OF  FAT  OILS 176-179 

FAT  OILS 180-184 

PHARMACOPCEIAL  PREPARATIONS — TESTS  FOR  IMPURITIES.  185-192 
ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES — INFLUENCE  ON  THE  PRECIPITATION 

OF  METALLIC  OXIDES 193 

BLOWPIPE  ANALYSIS 195 

CASAMAJOR'S  TABLE 196 

TABLE  OF  VOLATILE  ELEMENTS 198 

SCHEME  FOR  BLOWPIPE  ANALYSIS 200 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  DETERMINATIONS 207-212 

HYDROMETER  DEGREES 213, 214 

ALCOHOL— SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  SOLUTIONS 210 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID— SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  SOLUTION...         '220 

NITRIC  ACID — SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  SOLUTION 221 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID — SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  SOLUTIONS 223 

SULPHURIC  ACID  "  "          "  v<         225 

ETHYLIC  ETHER  "  "         "  "         226 

AMMONIC  HYDRATE         "  "         "  "  227 


viii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

POTASSIC  HYDRATE — SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  SOLUTIONS  . . .  229 

SODIC  HYDRATE       .         "              "         "           "          ...  230 

ACETIC  ACID                     "              "         "           "          ...  231 

GLYCERIN                           "               "          "           "           ...  232 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  OFFICIAL  LIQUIDS 232 

TABLE  OF  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHTS 235 

MINERALOGY 241 

PRINCIPAL  MINERALS 243 

COAL 336 

PETROLEUM 348 

SCALE  OF  HARDNESS 350 

STOICHIOMETRY 353 

TABLE  OF  SOLUBILITY 360 

TABLE   OF    REDUCTION   OF  COMPOUNDS   FOUND  TO  CON- 
STITUENTS SOUGHT. 362 

QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS 371 

IRON  ORE  ANALYSIS 373 

CAST  IRON       "         384 

CHROMIC  IRON  "         , 388 

PIG  LEAD         "         390 

NICKEL  ORE     "         392 

COPPER  ORE    "         393 

ZINC  ORE         " 394 

PYROLUSITE     " 395 

ILMENITE         " 397 

ORTHOCLASE    "         398 

DOLOMITE         "         399 

•  WHITE  LEAD  "         >    400 

TYPE  METAL    "         401 

SILVER  COIN    "         402 

FERTILIZER      "         403 

WATER             "         "..  404 

COAL                " 421 

GUNPOWDER     "         423 

GLASS               " 425 

CHLORIMETRY 427 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  ix 

PAGE 

ORGANIC  ANALYSIS  . . 431 

URINE            "         450 

BLOOD            "         447 

MILK                          457 

SUGARS 462 

"       EXAMINATIONS 472-486 

ASSAYING 487 

IRON  ORE  ASSAY 489 

GOLD  AND  SILVER  ASSAY 494 

LEAD  ORES,  ASSAY  OF , 514 

ANTIMONY,            "        515 

PLATINUM,            "        515 

CHEMISTRY  OF  MAN 517 

ANALYSIS  OF  SECRETIONS 520-544 

MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENT 545 

ELEMENTS,  CLASSIFICATION  OF 547 

TABLE  OF  THE  DEFUNCT  ELEMENTS 554 

PRICE  OF  METALS 556 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 557 

FRUITS,  COMPOSITION  OF 572 

GLYCERIN  AS  A  SOLVENT 578 

FORMULAE  OF  FREQUENTLY-OCCURRING  SUBSTANCES 578 

FORMULAE  OF  FREQUENTLY-OCCURRING  ACIDS 581 

ARTIFICIAL  FORMATION  OF  ORGANIC  BODIES 584 

ALCOHOLS 585 

ALLOYS  AND  COMPOSITIONS 587 

AVAILABLE  OXYGEN  IN  A  FEW  OXYGEN  COMPOUNDS  ....  589 

OLD  NAMES  FOR  A  FEW  SALTS „ 590 

POISON  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES 592 

THERMOMETERS 598 

DIFFERENT  REMARKABLE  TEMPERATURES 602 

^— •  ™TxrTS  OF  SATURATED  SOLUTIONS 603 

BAROMETER  !>•               ...   604 

IITS  AND  MEASI  KES 605 

THE  VALI-,    OF  STANDARD  COINS  IN  CIRCULA- 

>  MON  3Y. .  614 


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TABLE   OF   SPECIFIC  HEATS. 


TABLE  OF  SPECIFIC  HEATS  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


NAME  OF  SUBSTANCE. 

SPECIFIC  HEAT. 

AUTHOBITY. 

•     ' 

n  9ft9 

(    .0495 

Bunsen. 

'(    .0523 

ft»99 

Kopp. 
j  Neumann    (Pogg.    Ann. 

"        (crystallized),      -     -     -     - 
"        (amorphous),       -     -     -     - 
Bismuth,  - 
Boron  (amorphous),     
"      (crystallized),    

.0830 
.0758 
.0305 
.254 
.230 

0^4.9 

1      cxxvi.  137). 
Bettendorff  and  Wullner. 
do.             do. 
Kopp. 
do. 
do. 

do 

OKAQ 

n  i  • 

1  A7ft 

Hn 

Carbon  (natural  graphite);    -    - 
(purified), 

e                    <(                    ft 

'      (gas  carbon),    
(purified), 

"      (iron  graphite),    -     -    -    - 
«         «            (t 

.2019 

.1977 
.1955 
.174 
.1968 
.2000 
.2040 
.185 
.1961 
.166 
1483 

(  Regnault  (Ann.  Ch.  Phys. 
\      [4],  vii.  46). 
Regnault. 
Bettendorff  and  Wullner 
Kopp. 
Regnault. 
do. 
Bettendorff  and  WilUner. 
Kopp. 
Bettendorff  and  Wullner. 
Kopp. 
Bettendorff  and  Wullner 

OOQ30 

0570 

Iron,     -     -     - 

.112 

f)Q-|K 

do. 
do 

245 

do 

Ruthenium,  -     - 
Selenium,  (crystalline),  -    -     -    - 

((                                                  <4 

"          (amorphous),  -     -     -     - 
Silicon  (graphitoi'dal),      -     -     -     - 
"       (crystalline),    -     -     -     -     - 
"       (fused),  
Silvpr                            ...... 

.0611 
.08401 
.0860 
.0953 
.181 
.165 
.138 
0560 

do. 
Bettendorff  and  Wullner. 
Neumann. 
Bettendorff  and  Wullner. 
Kopp. 
do. 
do. 
do 

055Q 

(      .163       ) 

Kopp 

((bet.  17°  &  45°)  J 
1712 

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DEPORTMENT 


OF 


THE  METALS  AND  THEIR  SALTS 

WITH    REAGENTS. 


GROUP  I 

Will  contain  SILVER  SALTS,  MERCUROTTS  SALTS,  and  LEAD 
SALTS,  the  Chlorides  of  which,  namely,  ARGENTIC  CHLORIDE, 
MERCUROUS  CHLORIDE,  and  PLUMBIC  CHLORIDE,  are  insoluble 
or  but  sparingly  soluble  in  water  and  in  dilute  acids,  and  are 
therefore  precipitated  by  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 

SILVER. 

Symbol  Ag. — Atomic  weight,  108. — Equivalence,  I  and  III. — Positive 
Monad.— Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.  100.00.— Specific  gravity,  10.53.— 
Specific  heat,  0.0570.-— Atomic  volume,  10.04.— Fusing  point,  1023°  C.— 
Color,  white. — Cut  with  a  knife. — Order  of  malleability  commencing  with 
gold,  second  ;  ductility  commencing  with  gold,  second  ;  tenacity  commencing 
with  (iron  as  1000,  silver  as  349) ;  heat-conducting  power  commencing  with 
gold,  third. 

SILVER   OXIDES. 

There  are  THREE  SILVER  OXIDES  known. 

ARGENTIC  OXIDE,  Ag20,  made  by  heating  argentic  car- 
bonate to  200°  C. ;  it  is  a  brown-black  powder,  having  a  Sp. 
Or.  7.143  (Herapath). 

ARGENTIC  DIOXIDE,  Ag202,  formed  when  concentrated 
AgN03  is  electrolyzed,  with  two  thick  platinum  wires  for 
poles,  and  is  deposited  in  crystals  on  the  positive  pole,  while 
metallic  silver  separates  at  the  negative  pole. 


14  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

AKGENTOUS  OXIDE,  Ag40,*  is  made  by  passing  hydrogen 
gas  over  argentic  oxalate  or  citrate  heated  to  100°  C.  ;  half  the 
acid  is  set  free,  leaving  the  AKGENTOUS  OXIDE  ;  remove  the  acid 
by  water. 

SILVER   SALTS. 

The  silver  salts  are  non-volatile  and  colorless;  most  of 
them  acquire  a  black  tint  when  exposed  to  the  light.  Vege- 
table colors  are  not  altered  by  the  soluble  neutral  salts,  but 
the  salts  are  decomposed  at  red  heat. 

METALLIC   SILVER. 

1.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  fuses,  and  gives  after  a  time 
a  red  incrustation  of  argentic  oxide  (Ag20). 

2.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  has  very  little,  if  any,  action  on  it. 

3.  NITRIC  ACID  dissolves  it  slowly  when  cold,  rapidly  when 
hot,  evolving  nitrogen  dioxide  (N202). 

6Ag  +  8HN03=6AgN03+'N^+4:H20. 

4.  SULPHURIC   ACID,   when   concentrated,   dissolves  silver 
if  heated,  evolving  sulphurous   oxide   (S02).      The  solution 
contains  ARGENTIC  SULPHATE  (Ag2S04).     Dilute  acid  has  no 
effect  ^JL— 

2Ag+2H2S04=Ag2S04  +  S02  +  2H20. 

Wote.—The  silver  of  commerce  is  usually  alloyed  with  copper  ;  it  also 
contains  a  trace  of  gold,  which  remains  behind  as  a  black  powder  when  the 
silver  and  copper  are  dissolved  in  nitric  acid.—  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

SALTS  OF  SILVER. 
/Solution  best  fitted  for  reaction  : 

ARGENTIC  NITRATE  (AgN03). 

5.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  when  added  to  argentic  nitrate, 
produces  a  white  precipitate  of  argentic  chloride  (AgCl)  insol- 
uble in  water  and  in  NITRIC  ACID  ;   READILY  SOLUBLE  nsr  AM- 
MONIC  HYDRATE  and  reprecipitated  by  nitric  acid. 

+  HCl=AgCl+HN03. 


If  this  formula  Ag40  is  correct,  oxygen  is  a  tetrad. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  15 

Note.  —  The  argentic  chloride  becomes  violet  when  exposed  to  the  light. 
When  mixed  with  a  certain  quantity  of  mercurous  chloride  or  fuming  sul- 
phuric acid,  this  change  of  color  does  not  take  place.  —  (TuTTLE  AND 
CHANDLER.) 

6.  SOLUBLE  CHLORIDES,  such  as  NaCl,  KC1,  etc.,  produce  the 
same  result  as  hydrochloric  acid. 

NaCl=AgCl+NaN03. 


SODIC  THIOSULPHATE  (Na2S203)  DISSOLVES  argentic  chloride, 
and  prevents  precipitation  by  potassic  chloride  ;  but  potassic 
or  sodic  bromide  or  iodide  added  to  the  solution,  precipitates 

ARGENTIC  BROMIDE  Or  IODIDE. 

2AgCl  +  2Na2S203  =  (Na2S203  +  Ag2S203)  +  2NaCl. 


POTASSIC    CYANIDE     dissolves    argentic    chloride    forming 

ARGENTO-POTASSIC   CYANIDE. 

AgCl  +  2KCN=AgCN,KCN  +  KCl. 

7.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  a  black  precipitate  of 
ARGENTIC  SULPHIDE  (Ag2S)  insoluble  in  dilute  acids  and  in 
ammonic  sulphide  (NH4HS),  soluble  in  boiling  nitric  acid  with 
separation  of  sulphur. 

2AgN03  +  H2S=Ag2S  +  2HN03. 

8.  AMMONIC   SULPHIDE  >acts  the   same   as  hydrosulphuric 

acid. 

2AgN03  +  NH4SH=Ag2S+NH4N03  +  HN03. 

9.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE,  when  added,  produces  a  light-brown 
precipitate  of  ARGENTIC   OXIDE  (Ag20),   insoluble  in  excess, 

SOLUBLE   IN   AMMONIC    HYDRATE. 


1C.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  added  to  neutral  solutions  pro- 
duces a  brown  precipitate  of  ARGENTIC  OXIDE  soluble  in  excess. 
No  precipitate  is  produced  in  acid  solutions. 


16  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

11.  POTASSIC  BROMIDE  precipitates  ARGENTIC  BROMIDE  (AgBr) 
yellowish  in  color,  insoluble  in  water  and  acids,  and  much  less 
soluble  in  ammonic  hydrate  than  the  chloride,  soluble  in  sodic 
hyposulphite. 

AgN03  +  KBr=  AgBr-f-  KN03. 

12.  POTASSIC    IODIDE    produces    a   pale-yellow    flocculent 
precipitate  of  ARGENTIC  IODIDE  (Agl),  slowly  acted  on  by  light, 
insoluble  in  acids  and  almost  so  in  amraonic  hydrate,  soluble 
in  a  concentrated  solution  of  potassic  iodide,  and  soluble  in  a 
solution  of  sodic  hyposulphite. 


The  FOLLOWING  are  a  few  miscellaneous  REACTIONS  : 


Ag3P04=  ARGENTIC    ORTHOPHOSPHATE    or    PHOSPHATE    is   a 
canary-yellow  product.     Solution  is  acid. 

AgN03  +  NaP03  =  AgP03  +  NaN03. 
AgPO  3=  ARGENTIC  METAPHOSPHATE  is  a  gelatinous  mass. 


Ag4P207=  ARGENTIC  PYROPHOSPHATE  is  a  white  precipitate. 

2AgN03  +  K2Cr207.^Ag2Cr207  +  2KN03. 
Ag2Cr207=  ARGENTIC  BICHROMATE,  red-brown. 

2AgN03  +  K2Cr04=Ag2Cr04  +  2KN03. 

Ag2Cr04  =  ARGENTIC   CHROMATE,  dark-brown  precipitate,  sol- 
uble in  ammonic  hydrate  and  in  dilute  acids. 

AgN03  +  KCN  =AgCN  +  KN03. 

AgCN  =  ARGENTIC  CYANIDE  is  a  white  curdy  precipitate,  sol- 
uble in  excess  of  reagent,  insoluble  in  dilute  acids. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  17 

Ag2C03:=  ARGENTIC  CARBONATE,  soluble  in  ammonic  hydrate 
and  ammonic  carbonate. 

2AgN03-fC2H204=Ag2C204  +  2HN03. 

Ag2C204=  ARGENTIC   OXALATE,  white  precipitate,  soluble  in 
ammonic  hydrate  and  sparingly  in  nitric  acid. 

+  C6H5K307=C6H5Ag307  +  3KN03. 


C6  H  5  Ag30  7=  ARGENTIC  CITRATE,  white  powder. 

C6H4Ag206  =  ARGENTIC  TARTRATE,  curdy  precipitate,  produced 

by  mixing  a  dilute  solution  of  argentic  nitrate  with  a  dilute 
solution  of  Rochelle-salt  (C8H4KNa06.4H20  potassio-sodic 
tartrate)  slightly  acidulated  with  nitric  acid. 

METALLIC  SILVER  is  PRECIPITATED  by  Zn,  Cu,  Fe,  Hg,  P,  etc., 
SnCl2,  FeS04,  etc. 


AgN0 

13.  BLOWPIPE.  —  Dry  compounds  of  silver,  mixed  with 
sodic  carbonate  and  fused  before  the  blowpipe  on  charcoal, 
yield  MALLEABLE,  metallic  GLOBULES  of  pure  silver  without 
forming  an  incrustation.  —  CHARACTERISTIC  REACTION,  !Nb.  5. 

LEAD. 

Symbol,  Pb.  —  Atomic  weight,  207.  —  Equivalence,  II  and  IV.  —  Color, 
bluish  white.—  Cut  by  a  knife.—  Specific  gravity,  11.36.—  Fuses  at  325°  C. 
(or  617°  F.—RUDBERG).—  Specific  Heat,  0.0314.—  Atomic  volume,  18.24.— 
Electric  conductivity  at  32°  P.  8.32.—  Order  of  malleability  commencing 

*  A  (5  —  Heat  or  fuse. 


18  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

with  gold,  is  the  seventh ;  for  ductility  commencing  with  gold,  is  the 
eighth. — Tenacity,  iron  as  1000, — Pb=50. — Order  of  heat-conducting  power 
commencing  with  gold,  is  the  seventh. 


LEAD   OXIDES. 
LEAD  unites  with  OXYGEN  to  form  five  OXIDES  : 

Plumbic  oxide,  PbO  ;  Plumbous  oxide,  Pb20  ; 

Plumbic  peroxide,  Pb02  ;  Plumbic  orthoplumbate,  Pb304  ; 

Plumbic  meta  plumbate,  Pb203. 

Pb20  PLUMBOUS   OXIDE  may  be  produced  if  plumbic  ox- 
alate  is  heated  in  a  retort  from  which  air  is  excluded,  viz.  : 


PbO  PLUMBIC  OXIDE  (Litharge)  may  be  obtained  pure  by 
igniting  basic  nitrate  or  the  carbonate  or  oxalate  in  a  platinum 
crucible  in  contact  with  air,  taking  care  the  oxide  does  not 
fuse,  otherwise  it  would  take  up  the  metal  from  the  crucible. 
Pure  oxide,  lemon-yellow  color,  Sp.  Gr.  9.4214. 

Pb02  PLUMBIC  PEROXIDE  may  be  formed  by  exposing  the 
protoxide  (PbO)  suspended  in  water  to  the  action  of  a  stream 
of  chlorine  gas.  It  is  a  brown  powder;  when  heated  gives 
off  oxygen,  and  is  converted  into  red  lead  or  protoxide. 

Pb304  PLUMBIC  ORTHOPLUMBATE  =  (2  PbO.  Pb02  or  PbO. 
Pb203)  Pb2Pb04,  and  is  sometimes  called  red  oxide;  it  is 
formed  when  the  protoxide  is  kept  at  a  low  red  heat  for  a 
considerable  time  in  contact  with  air.  It  is  a  scarlet  crystal- 
line granular  powder,  Sp.  Gr.  8.62  (KARSTEN). 

Pb203  PLUMBIC  META  PLUMBATE  (Pb.Pb03)  may  be  obtained 
by  precipitating  a  solution  of  red  oxide  in  acetic  acid  with 
caustic  alkalies  or  alkaline  carbonate.  It  is  a  reddish-yellow 
precipitate. 

LEAD    SALTS. 

The  salts  of  lead  are  non-volatile  ;  most  of  them  are  color- 
less; the  neutral  soluble  salts  redden  litmus-paper,  and  are 
decomposed  at  a  red  heat. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  19 

Plumbic  chloride,  when  heated  with  access  of  air,  partially 
volatilizes,  and  oxy  chloride  of  lead  remains  behind. 

METALLIC    LEAD. 

14.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  fuses  and  gives  an  incrusta- 
tion of  plumbic  oxide,  which  is  deep-yellow  when  hot,  pale- 
yellow  when  cold. 

15.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  has  very  little  action  on  lead. 

16.  NITRIC  ACID,  when  concentrated,  acts  very  slowly  on 
lea<J  ;  but  if  it  be  diluted,  especially  if  heated,  it  rapidly  dis- 
solves it,  forming  plumbic  nitrate,  which  separates  from  the 
solution  sometimes  in  white  crystals. 


3Pb  +  8HN03=3Pb$N03+N202 

17.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  hot  and  concentrated,  dissolves 
lead  and  forms  plumbic  sulphate  with  evolution  of  sulphurous 
oxide.  Dilute  acid  does  not  act  on  lead. 


LEAD   SALTS. 
Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions: 

PLUMBIC  NITRATE  (Pb2N03). 

18.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  when  added  to  a  solution  of  plum- 
bic nitrate,  produces  a  white  precipitate  of  PLUMBIC  CHLORIDE 
(PbCl2),  which  is  SOLUBLE  in  a  large  amount  of  WATER  ;  there 
is  therefore  no  precipitate  found  in  dilute  solutions  of  lead. 
In  every  case  a  little  lead  escapes  precipitation.  Ammonic 
hydrate  does  not  dissolve  or  blacken  the  precipitate. 

+  2HCl=PbCl2 


19.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  a  black  precipitate  of 
PLUMBIC  SULPHIDE,  which  is  insoluble  in  cold  dilute  acids,  in 
alkalies,  alkaline  sulphides,  and  potassic  cyanide. 

Hot  dilute  nitric  acid  dissolves  (if  dilute  enough)  the  precipi- 
tate, forming  plumbic  nitrate,  and  separates  sulphur.  Fuming 


20  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

nitric  acid  oxidizes  the  sulphur  and  converts  the  precipitate 
into  insoluble  plumbic  sulphate.  If  in  the  solution  to  be  pre- 
cipitated from,  there  is  any  excess  of  concentrated  mineral  acid, 
such  acid  must  be  neutralized  by  the  addition  of  water  or  an 
alkali  before  the  hydrosulphuric  acid  will  precipitate  the  lead. 
If  the  solution  contains  an  excess  of  free  hydrochloric  acid 
the  precipitate  may  be  red,  consisting  of  plumbic  sulphide  and 
plumbio  chloride,  which  in  time,  with  the  addition  of  hydro- 
sulphuric  acid  in  excess,  will  be  converted  into  plumbic  sul- 
phide. 


2O.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  acts  the  same  as  hydrosulphuric 
acid. 


21.  SULPHURIC  ACID  produces  a  white  precipitate  of  plumbic 
sulphate,  which  is  nearly  insoluble  in  dilute  acids  and  water  ; 
concentrated  nitric  acid  partially  dissolves  it;   concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid,  when  boiling,  dissolves  it  with  difficulty; 
a  solution  of  potassic  hydrate  dissolves  it  more  readily.     Am- 
monic  acetate  or  citrate  dissolves  it,  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
precipitates  it  again.     In  very  dilute  solutions  of  lead  an  ex- 
cess of  dilute  acid  should  be  added,  as  the  precipitate  only 
forms  after  standing.     Precipitate  is  blackened  by  hydrosul- 
phuric acid.  'which  distinguishes  it  from  baric  and  strontic 
sulphate,  which  are  insoluble.     Plumbic  sulphate,  in  the  cold, 
is  soluble  in  water  to  the  extent  of  ^iiro  Fresenius  ;  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  ^ion  Fresenius  ;  almost  absolutely  insoluble 
in  alcohol. 

Pb2N03  +  H2S04  =  PbS04  +  2H  N03. 

22.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE   produces   a   white  precipitate  of 
plumbic    hydrate   (Pb2HO),    readily    soluble    in    excess,   and 
almost  insoluble  in  ammonic  hydrate. 


23.   AMMONIA    produces   a   white   precipitate   of  plumbic 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  21 

hydrate  (Pb2HO),  insoluble  in  excess,  but  readily  soluble  in 
nitric  acid.  In  solutions  of  plumbic  acetate,  ammonic  hydrate 
(free  from  carbonate)  does  not  immediately  produce  a  precipi- 
tate, owing  to  the  formation  of  a  soluble  plumbic  triacetate. 

The  filtrate  from  the  precipitation  should  be  examined,  for 
it  will  contain  some  lead  if  the  ammonic  hydrate  is  in  excess 
and  there  are  ammonic  salts  present. 

Pb2N03+NH4HO=Pb2HO  +  NH4N 


24.  POTASSIC  CHROMATE  or  DICHROMATE  produces  a  yellow 
precipitate  of  plumbic  chromate  (PbCr04)  which  is  insoluble 
in  acetic  acid;  sparingly  soluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  but 
readily  so  in  potassic  hydrate. 


+  K2Cr04=PbCr04 
+  K2Cr207+H20=2PbCr044-2KN03 

25.  SODIC    CARBONATE    produces   a  white   precipitate   of 

PLUMBIC   CARBONATE,    together    With    PLUMBIC    HYDRATE,    which 

is  insoluble  in  excess  of  the  precipitant,  and  also  in  potassium 
cyanide. 

7Pb2N03  +  7Na2C03  +  H20=(6PbC03  +  Pb2HO)  +  14NaN03 

TCC^ 

26.  POTASSIUM   IODIDE  precipitates  plumbic  iodide  as   a 
beautiful  light-yellow  precipitate. 


METALLIC  LEAD  is  precipitated  by  zinc  and  iron  out  of  its 
soluble  salts. 

Pb2N03+Zn  = 


When  plumbic  sulphate  is  heated  with  carbon  in  the  right 
proportion,  metallic  lead  is  produced. 


PbS04  +  C  =  Pt>  +  CO 
.  BLOWPIPE.  —  Dry  compounds  of  lead,  when  fused  with 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


sodic  carbonate  on  charcoal  in  the  inner  (reducing)  flame,  fur- 
nishes very  soft,  MALLEABLE  globules  of  METALLIC  LEAD,  which 
produces  a  mark  on  paper  like  a  pencil.  A  yellow  incrustation 
is  formed  at  the  same  time,  which  becomes  quite  pale  when  cold. 

LIMIT   OF   REACTIONS   OF  TESTS   FOR    LEAD. 


ONE  PART  OF 

IN  WATER. 

REAGENT. 

AUTHORITY. 

Lead    

100,000  or  more. 

Sulphydric  Acid. 

A  S  Taylor 

Lead  as  Nitrate  

200,000 

Lassaigne. 

Oxide  of  Lead  as  Nitrate 
Nitrate  of  Lead  

350,000 
100,000 

ci           u 

it           u 

Harting. 
Pfaff 

Oxide  as  Nitrate  

20,000 

HjSO^  in  excess. 

Pfaff  &  Harting 

Lead  as        "      . 

25,000 

Na2SO4  in  15  rain 

Oxide  as       " 

70  000 

CHARACTEBISTIC  EBACTIONS,  18,  21,  37. 
MERCURY. 

Symbol  Hg  (Hydrargyrum  from  vtiupapyvpov,  liquid  silver  or  quicksilver). 
—Atomic  weight,  200.— Equivalence  (Hg8)  and  II.— Density,  100.— Mo- 
lecular weight,  200. — Molecular  volume,  2. — One  litre  of  mercury  vapor, 
weight  8. 96  grains  (100  criths).— Specific  gravity,  13.596  at  32°  F.— Solidifies 
at  -40°  F.;  boils  at  350° F.— Vapor,  Sp.  Gr.  6.976.— Electric  conductivity, 
1.63  at  73°  F.— Atomic  volume,  14.56. 

MERCURY   OXIDES. 

There  are  TWO  MERCURY  OXIDES  known: 

MERCURIC  OXIDE  HgO,  or  red  mercuric  oxide,  also  called 
binoxide  and  deutoxide. 

When  mercurous  or  mercuric  nitrate  is  exposed  in  a  glass 
vessel  surrounded  with  sand,  to  heat,  as  long  as  nitrous  oxide 
is  evolved,  mercuric  oxide  is  formed.  The  commercial  oxide 
has  a  bright  brick-red  color,  shining  crystalline  grains.  Sp. 
Gr.  11.074  (Herapth)  of  precipitated. 

MERCUROUS  OXIDE  Hg20.  Black  mercurous  oxide,  also 
called  dioxide  and  suboxide. 

When  a  solution  of  mercurous  salt  is  mixed  with  an  excess 
of  caustic  alkali,  mercurous  oxide  is  precipitated.  Brown-black 
powder.  Sp.  Gr.  10.69  (Herapth)  of  that  obtained  from  calomel. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  23 

METALLIC    MERCURY. 

28.  HEATED  IN  A  TUBE,  having  one  end  closed,  it  boils, 
and  in  the  cool  part  of  the  tube  minute  shining  particles  con- 
dense. 

29.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  does  not  attack  metallic  mercury. 

30.  NITRIC  ACID,  if  dilute  and  cold,  dissolves  the  metal 
slowly,  and  the  solution  contains  MERCUKOUS  NITRATE. 

Dilute.  ^A 


Concentrated  acid,  when  hot,  dissolves  the  metal  rapidly, 
forming  MERCURIC  NITRATE. 

Cone.  ^A—  , 

3Hg  +  8HN03  =  3Hg(N03)2  +  N202  +  4H20. 

31.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  concentrated  and  in  excess,  if 
heated,  dissolves  the  metal  with  evolution  of  sulphurous  oxide, 
forming  MERCURIC  SULPHATE. 


When  the  metal  is  in  excess  of  the  acid,  a  mixture  of  mer- 
curous  and  mercuric  sulphate  is  obtained.  Dilute  acid  does 
not  act  upon  the  metal. 

SALTS   OF    MERCUROUS   OXIDE. 

The  mercurous  salts  volatilize  on  ignition  ;  most  of  them  are 
decomposed  by  this  process.  Mercurous  bromide  and  chloride 
volatilize  unaltered.  Mercurous  nitrate  is  decomposed  on  the 
addition  of  much  water  into  a  pale-yellow  insoluble  basic  and 
soluble  acid  salt.  The  soluble  salts  in  the  neutral  state  redden 
litmus-paper.  Most  of  the  salts  are  colorless. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  reactions  : 

MERCUROUS  NITRATE  Hg2(N03)2. 

32.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  precipitates  a  powder  of  dazzling 
whiteness,  MERCUROUS  CHLORIDE  (Hg2Cl2)  (calomel). 

Hg22N03  +  2HC1=  Hg2Cl2  +  2H  N03. 


24  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

Insoluble  in  water  and  dilute  acids.  Hydrochloric  and 
nitric  acids,  after  long  boiling,  dissolves  it.  Nitrohydrochloric 
acid  and  chlorine  dissolve  it  readily,  converting  it  into  mer- 
curic chloride.  Ammonic  hydrate  and  potassic  hydrate  Slacken 
mercurous  chloride  ;  when  potassic  hydrate  is  used,  the  black 
mercurous  oxide  is  precipitated  (§  36)  ;  when  ammonic  hydrate 
is  used,  MERCUROUS-AMMONIUM  CHLORIDE  (NH3Hg)2Cl2  is  pro- 
duced. 


33.  SOLUBLE  CHLORIDES  produce  the  same  precipitate  as 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Hg2(N03)2  +  2NaCl  =  Hg2Cl2  +  2NaN03. 

34.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  a  black  precipitate  of 
MERCUROUS  SULPHIDE  (Hg2S)  ;  insoluble  in  ammonic  sulphide, 
dilute  acids,  and  potassic  cyanide  ;  easily  soluble  in  nitrohydro- 
chloric  acid,  but  not  by  boiling  concentrated  NITRIC  ACID,  which 

does   NOT   ATTACK  IT. 

Hg2(N03)2  +  H2S=Hg2S  +  2HN03. 

35.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
hydrosulphuric  acid. 

Hg2(N03)2+NH4HS=Hg2S+NH4N03 


36.  POTASSIC    HYDRATE  produces  a  black  precipitate  of 

MERCUROUS    OXIDE. 


Precipitate  is  insoluble  in  excess.  Sodic  hydrate  produces 
the  same  precipitate. 

37.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  black  precipitate  of 
2NH3.3Hg2O.N205,  which  is  a  HYDRATED  TRIMERCUROUS  AM- 
MONIUM NITRATE.  2(NHHg3)N03.2H20  (according  to  C.  G. 
Mitscherlich),  but  according  to  Kane,  2(NH2Hg2)N03.H20  (di- 
mercurous  ammonium  nitrate).  The  precipitate  is  velvet-black, 
and  is  known  as  "  HAHNEMANN'S  SOLUBLE  MERCURY." 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  25 

METALLIC    MERCURY    PRECIPITATED. 

38.  STANNOUS  CHLORIDE  produces  a  gray  precipitate  of  ME- 
TALLIC MERCURY,  which  may  be  united  into  globules  by  boiling 
the  metallic   deposit,  after   decanting  the  fluid  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  to  which  a  drop  of  stannous  chloride  may  be 
added  with  advantage. 

39.  METALLIC  COPPER,  when  introduced  into  a  solution  of 
mercury,  becomes  covered  with  a  lustrous  coating  of  METALLIC 
MERCURY.     If  the  coated  copper  be  dried  and  heated,  it  as- 
sumes its  original  color,  the  mercury  being  volatilized. 

Hg22N03  +  Cu  =  2Hg+Cu2N03. 

"Copper  wire  or  foil,  in  pieces  about  one  inch  in  length,  may  be  used  for 
this  test.  They  should  be  first  dipped  into  strong  nitric  acid,  and  well  washed. 
The  mercurial  solution  should  be  acidulated  with  a  few  drops  of  dilute  nitric 
acid,  and  then  boiled  for  a  few  minutes  with  the  strips  of  copper.  These 
are  then  to  be  removed,  washed,  dried  between  folds  of  paper,  and  gently 
heated  in  a  small  glass  tube,  closed  at  one  end.  A  shining  ring  of  minute 
globules  of  mercury  will  condense  above  the  copper,  which  now  resumes  its 
original  color.  This  method  is  often  used  to  separate  mercury  from  organic 
substances,  in  examining  vomited  matter,  and  in  case  of  poisoning." — (TuT- 
TLE  AND  CHANDLEB.) 

40.  POTASSIC  CYANIDE  precipitates  mercuryo 

C  Hg22N03  +  2KCN  =  Hg2(CN)2  +  2KN03. 
(Hg2(CN)2-Hg+Hg(CN)2. 

There  is  first  formed  Hg2  (CN)2,  which  is  resolved  into  mer- 
curic cyanide  Hg(CN)2  and  metallic  mercury. 

METALLIC  MERCURY  is  separated  as  a  gray  powder  by  zinc, 
sulphurous  acid,  and  phosphorous  acid. 

41.  NITRIC  ACID  converts  all  mercurous  salts  into  mercuric  by 
boiling. 

A   FEW   MISCELLANEOUS   REACTIONS. 

POTASSIC  IODIDE,  when  added  to  mercurous  nitrate,  forms  a 
greenish-yellow  precipitate  of  MERCUROUS  IODIDE  (always,  how- 
ever, mixed  with  mercuric  iodide),  soluble  in  excess. 


26  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

POTASSIO  FERROCYANIDE,  when  added  to  mercurous  nitrate, 
forms  a  white,  and  POTASSIC  FERRICYANIDE  a  reddish-brown 
precipitate. 

Sodic  phosphate  and  oxalic  acid  form  white  precipitates 
with  mercurous  nitrate. 


POTASSIC  CHROMATE  produces  a  brick-red  precipitate  when 
added  to  mercurous  nitrate. 

GALLIC  ACID  produces  a  brownish-yellow  precipitate  when 
added  to  mercurous  nitrate. 

4:2.  BLOWPIPE.  —  Dry  compounds  of  mercury  mixed  with 
ten  to  twelve  parts  of  dry  sodic  carbonate,  and  heated  in  a  dry 
glass  tube,  closed  at  one  end,  yield  METALLIC  MERCURY,  which 
condenses  in  minute  globules  in  the  cool  part  of  the  tube. 
These  may  be  united  together  into  larger  globules  by  rubbing 
with  a  glass  rod. 

"  To  make  this  test  more  delicate,  the  mercury  compound  should  be  care- 
fully dried;  the  sodic  carbonate  should  be  ignited  (on  platinum  foil)  just 
previous  to  use.  To  prevent  sublimation  of  any  undecomposed  mercury 
compound,  a  layer  of  sodic  carbonate  should  be  placed  above  the  mixture." 

—  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLEK.) 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  32,  39,  42. 

DETECTION   OF   MEMBERS   OF  GROUP   I. 

Having  noticed  the  different  respective  behaviors  of  the 
chlorides  of  the  members  of  this  group,  with  water  and  am- 
monic  hydrate,  we  are  able  to  make  a  scheme  for  their  separa- 
tion and  detection. 

SCHEME   FOR  THE   SEPARATION    AND    DETECTION    OF 
MEMBERS  OF   GROUP   I. 

The  solution  to  be  examined  is  supposed  to  contain  a  salt  of 
silver,  mercurous  oxide,  and  lead. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


27 


Add  to  the  solution  hydrochloric  acid ;  there  is  produced  a 
precipitate  of  argentic,  plumbic,  and  mercurous  chloride. 

AgCl+PbCl2  +  Hg2Cl2; 

Filter  the  precipitate  and  wash  it,  then  boil  the  precipitate 
in  water  and  niter : 


FILTRATE. 

The  filtrate  will  con- 
tain PbCl2  in  solution. 
Add  sulphuric  acid  if  a 
precipitate  is  produced; 
it  is  plumbic  sulphate 
PbS04.  (See  §18;  §27.) 


RESIDUE. 

The  residue  will  contain  AgCl+Hg2Cl2. 
ammonic  hydrate,  and  filter. 


Add 


Solution. 

Solution  will  contain 
the  silver  salt.  Add 
nitric  acid,  which  will 
precipitate  (AgCl)  ar- 
gentic chloride. 
§5.) 


Residue. 

If  black  (see  §  32)  dis- 
solve in  (3HC1  +  HN03) 
nitrohydrochloric  acid. 
Add  stannous  chloride 
(SnCl2)  in  excess,  which 
will  deposit  metallic 
mercury  (Hg). 

§38.) 


GROUP    II. 

This  group  contains  the  metals  NOT  PRECIPITATED  by  HYDRO- 
CHLORIC ACID,  but  precipitated  from  their  acid  solutions  by 
HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID. 

FIRST  DIVISION. 

Salts  of  the  metals,  the  sulphides  of  which  are  INSOLUBLE  IN 

AMMONIC    SULPHIDE. 

SECOND   DIVISION. 

Salts  of  the  metals,  the  sulphides  of  which  are  SOLUBLE  IN 

AMMONIC    SULPHIDE. 

FIRST   DIVISION. 
Salts  of  Lead,*  Mercury,  Copper,  Cadmium,  and  Bismuth. 

SALTS  OF   MERCURIC   OXIDE. 
Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions : 

MERCURIC  CHLORIDE  (HgCl2). 

The  SALTS  of  MERCURIC  OXIDE  volatilize  upon  ignition ;  most 
of  them  are  decomposed  by  this  process.  Mercuric  chloride, 
bromide,  and  iodide  volatilize  unaltered.  Mercuric  nitrate 
and  sulphate  are  decomposed  by  water  (added  in  large  quan- 
tity) into  soluble  acid  and  insoluble  basic  salts.  The  soluble 
neutral  salts  redden  litmus-paper.  Most  of  the  salts  of  mer- 
curic oxide  are  colorless. 

*  The  reactions  of  the  salts  of  lead  have  been  given  §  18  et  seq. ;  it  is 
introduced  here  for  the  reason  that  very  dilute  lead  solutions  give  no  pre- 
cipitate with  hydrochloric  acid,  but  are  precipitated  by  hydrosulphuric  acid. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  29 

43.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID,  when  added  to  a  solution  of 
mercuric  chloride  in  small   quantities,  produces  a  white  or 
yellow  precipitate  (HgCl2  +  2HgS).     On  the  addition  of  more 
of  the  precipitant,  the  precipitate  formed  passes  from  white  to 
yellow,  to  orange,  to  brownish-red  color,  and  finally  to  black 
if  enough  has  been  added.     This  distinguishes  the  mercuric 
oxide  from  all  other  bodies. 

HgCl2  +  H2S=HgS  +  2HCl, 

MERCURIC  SULPHIDE  is  not  dissolved  by  ammonic  sul- 
phide, potassic  hydrate,  or  potassic  cyanide;  insoluble  in 
boiling  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid.  Dissolves  completely  in 
potassic  sulphide,  and  is  readily  decomposed  and  dissolved 
by  nitrohydrochloric  acid. 

44.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
hydrosulphuric  acid. 

HgCl2  +  NH4HS=HgS+NH4Cl+HCl. 

45.  POTASSIC    HYDRATE,   added   in    small  quantities   to   a 
neutral  or  slightly  acid   solution,  produces  a  reddish-brown 
precipitate,  which  acquires  a  yellow  tint,  if  reagent  is  added  in 
excess.     The  reddish-brown  precipitate  is  a  BASIC  SALT;   the 
yellow  precipitate  consists  of  mercuric  oxide. 

=  HgO  +  |KCl+HCl. 


In  very  acid  solution  the  precipitation  is  very  incomplete. 
When  the  solution  of  mercuric  chloride  contains  an  excess  of 
ammonic  chloride,  the  precipitate  is  analogous  to  that  pro- 
duced in  §  40. 

46.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces   a   white   precipitate,  if 
ammonic  hydrate  be  in   excess   [HgCl2(NH2)2]  ;   if  mercuric 
chloride  be  in  excess  [2HgCl2(NH2)2]. 

47.  POTASSIC  IODIDE  produces  a  scarlet  precipitate  of  mer- 
curic iodide  (Hgl2). 


30  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Soluble  in  excess  of  either  salt.  This  difficulty  may  be 
avoided  by  adding  a  drop  of  potassic  iodide  to  the  white  pre- 
cipitate by  ammonic  hydrate,  §  40,  which  will  change  to  a 
chocolate-red  Hgl2. 

48.  STANNOUS  CHLORIDE,  when  added  in  small  quantities, 
produces  a  precipitate  of  mercurous  chloride. 

2HgCl2  +  SnCl2~  Hg2Cl2  +  SnCl4. 

If  added  in  excess  and  boiled,  the  mercurous  chloride  at  first 
formed  is  reduced  to  metal. 

Hg2Cl2  +  SnCl2  =  Hg2  +  SnCl4. 

The  metal  may  be  united  into  globules  by  boiling  with 
hydrochloric  acid  and  some  stannous  chloride. 

49.  BLOWPIPE. — The  behavior  of  the  mercuric  salts  is  the 
same  as  the  mercurous  salts ;  therefore  see  §  36. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTION,  39,  43,  47,  4£,  49. 

A   FEW    MISCELLANEOUS    REACTIONS. 

FORMIC  ACID  REDUCES  mercuric  chloride  to  mercurous 
chloride. 

AMMONIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  with 
mercuric  nitrate. 

POTASSIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  yellow  precipitate  of  HgO. 

HYDRO-POTASSIC  CARBONATE  and  HYDROSODIC  CARBONATE  pro- 
duces a  brown-red  precipitate  in  mercuric  nitrate,  and  a  white 
precipitate  turning  red  in  mercuric  chloride.  Precipitate 
(2HgO,HgCl2). 

SODIC  PHOSPHATE  produces  a  white  precipitate. 

POTASSIC  FERROCYANIDE  produces  in  solutions  not  too  dilute 
a  white  precipitate  turning  blue,  prussian  blue  being  formed 
while  nitrate  contains  mercuric  cyanide. 

POTASSIC  FERRICYANIDE  produces  a  white  precipitate  with 
mercuric  nitrate,  and  none  with  mercuric  chloride. 

TINCTURE  OF  GALLS  forms  an  orange-yellow  precipitate  in 
all  solutions  except  'mercuric  chloride. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  31 

COPPER. 

Symbol,  Cu.  (Latin,  Cuprium,  Cuprus). — Atomic  weight,  63.5. — Equiva- 
lence (Cu2)IL  and  II. — Color,  flesh-red. — Crystals,  isometric. — Specific  gravity, 
8.952.— Atomic  volume,  7.10.— Specific  heat,  0.0951.— Fusing  point,  1996°  F. 
— Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.  is  99.95. — Order  of  malleability  commenc- 
ing with  gold  is  third ;  Ductility,  fifth ;  Heat-conducting  power,  fourth. — 
Tenacity =550. 

COPPER   OXIDES. 

There  are  two  well-determined  copper  oxides,  and  two  un- 
certain oxides. 

CUPROUS  OXIDE,  Cu20,  also  called  dioxide,  suboxide,  and 
red  oxide  of  copper.  Found  native  in  two  forms  as  (rothkup- 
ferey  and)  red  copper  and  copper  ~bloom^  chalotrechite  (kupfer- 
bliithe).  Ignite  29  pts.  copper-filings  with  24  pts.  anhydrous 
cupric  sulphate,  and  cuprous  oxide  is  obtained.  Hydrochloric 
acid  forms,  with  cuprous  oxide,  cuprous  chloride,  which  is 
easily  decomposed  by  water.  Nitric  acid  converts  it  into 
cupric  nitrate ;  most  other  acids  decompose  it,  forming  cupric 
salts  and  depositing  metallic  copper.  Very  few  oxygen  salts 
known ;  sulphites  and  double  sulphites  with  alkaline  metals. 

CUPRIC  OXIDE,  CuO,  black  oxide  of  copper.  Found  native  as 
malaconite.  Prepared  by  exposing  cupric  sulphate  to  an  in- 
tense heat,  or  cupric  carbonate  or  nitrate  to  a  moderate  heat. 
Reduced  to  metal  by  hydrogen,  when  ignited  with  it,  or  char- 
coal. Potassium  or  sodium  also  reduce  it  to  a  metallic  state. 

SESQUIOXIDE  OF  COPPER,  Cu203 ;  not  known  in  a  separate 
state.  Mix  chloride  of  lime  with  a  solution  of  cupric  nitrate 
and  there  is  formed  calcic  cuprate,  a  beautiful  rose-colored 
substance ;  it  decomposes  but  slowly.  Most  other  salts  are  de- 
composed with  violent  evolution  of  oxygen,  soon  after  formation. 

PEROXIDE  OF  COPPER,  Cu02 ;  formed  by  agitating  cupric 
hydrate  with  a  large  excess  of  hydrogen  peroxide  at  0°  C.  It  is 
a  yellowish-brown  powder.  Insoluble  in  water,  with  acids  it 
forms  ordinary  cupric  salts  and  hydrogen  peroxide.  It  may 
only  be  a  compound  of  cupric  oxide  and  hydrogen  peroxide. — 
(THENARD.) 


32  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

METALLIC   COPPER. 

50.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL  it  becomes  coated  with  cupric 
oxide  ;  it  fuses  with  difficulty,  and  gives  no  incrustation. 

51.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  has  very  little  action  on  metallic 
copper. 

52.  NITRIC  ACID  dissolves  it  readily,  forming  cupric  nitrate 
and  evolving  nitrogen  dioxide. 


53.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  hot  and  concentrated,  rapidly 
dissolves  copper,  forming  blue  cupric  sulphate  (CuS04),  and 
evolving  sulphurous  oxide.  Dilute  acid  has  but  little  action 
on  copper. 


54.  NITROHYDROCHLORIC    ACID    dissolves   copper,   forming 
cupric  chloride  and  evolving  nitrogen  dioxide  (N202). 


SALTS  OF  COPPER. 

"  Most  of  the  neutral  salts  are  soluble  in  water  ;  the  soluble 
salts  redden  litmus-paper,  and  suffer  decomposition  when 
heated  to  gentle  redness,  with  the  exception  of  the  sulphate, 
which  can  bear  a  somewhat  higher  temperature.  They  are 
usually  white  in  the  anhydrous  state  ;  the  hydrated  salts  are 
usually  of  a  blue  or  green  color,  which  their  solutions  continue 
to  exhibit  even  when  much  diluted." 

Solutions  ~best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

CUPRIC  SULPHATE  (CuS04). 

55.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  a  black  precipitate  of 
cupric  sulphide. 


Cupric  sulphide  is  slightly  soluble  in  ammonic  sulphide, 
completely  soluble  in  boiling  nitric  acid,  and  dissolves  com- 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  33 

pletely  in  potassic  cyanide  ;  not  soluble  in  dilute  sulphuric  or 
hydrochloric  acid. 

56.  AMMONIC   SULPHIDE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
hydrosulphuric  acid. 

CuS04+NH4HS=CuS+NH4HS04. 

57.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  light-blue  bulky  precipi- 

tate Of  CUPRIC  HYDRATE  (Cu2HO). 

4  +  2KHO=Cu2HO  +  K2S04. 


Insoluble  in  excess.     When  heated,  turns  black,  forming  cu- 
PRIC  OXIDE. 

"  The  presence  of  fixed  organic  matters  (sugar,  tartaric  acid)  causes  the 
hydrate  to  redissolve  in  excess  of  potassic  hydrate  with  a  deep-blue  color."  — 

(TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

58.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  greenish-blue  precipitate 
of  a  BASIC  SALT  (CuS04  +  2Cu2HO),  when  added  in  a  small 
quantity;  in  a  large  quantity  the  precipitate  dissolves,  im- 
parting to  the  liquid  a  deep  azure-blue  color,  forming  (NH3)2 
CuO  +  (NH4)2S04.  This  test  distinguishes  copper  from  most 
other  substances. 


59.  SODIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  greenish-blue  precipitate 
of  cupric  carbonate  and  cupric  hydrate  (CuC03  +  Cu2HO), 
with  the  evolution  of  carbonic  oxide. 


This  precipitate,  on  boiling,  is  converted  into  cupric  oxide. 

6O.  POTASSIC   FERROCYANIDE   produces  a  chocolate-colored 
precipitate  of  cupric  ferrocyanide  (Cu2FeC6N6). 


Insoluble  in  dilute  acids,  but  readily  soluble  in  ammonic 
hydrate.  Decomposed  by  potassic  hydrate,  with  the  forma- 
tion of  cupric  hydrate  and  potassic  ferrocyanide. 


34:  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

To  very  dilute  solutions  of  copper,  potassic  ferrocyanide 
imparts  a  reddish  color,  which  is  a  more  delicate  indication 
than  the  ammonic  hydrate  reaction,  being  still  visible  in  a 
solution  containing  1  pt.  of  copper  in  400,000  pts.  of  liquid 
(Lassaigne),  and  in  1,000,000  pts.  (Sarzeau). 

Dissolves  in  ammonic  hydrate,  and  forms  on  evaporation, 
which  produces  a  most  delicate  test.  Thus,  if  a  solution  con- 
taining copper  and  iron  be  treated  with  ammonic  hydrate  in 
excess,  a  few  drops  of  potassic  ferrocyanide  added,  the  liquid 
filtered,  and  filtrate  evaporated  in  a  small  porcelain  crucible 
or  capsule,  cupric  ferrocyanide  is  left  behind,  exhibiting  char- 
acteristic red  color  (Warrington  Chem.  Soc.,  Qu.  J.  v.  137). 
Before  applying  the  test,  the  solution  should  be  acidulated 
with  acetic  acid.  If  strong  mineral  acids  present,  they  should 
be  neutralized  by  adding  excess  of  potassic  or  sodic  acetate. 

61.  POTASSIC  CYANIDE  produces  a  precipitate  of  CTJPEIC 
CYANIDE  Cu(CN)2,  which  is  yellow-green. 


Soluble  in  excess.  Hydrochloric  acid  throws  down  from  this 
solution  cuprous  cyanide  soluble  in  excess  of  acid  ;  hydrosul- 
phuric  acid  and  ammonic  sulphide  produces  no  precipitate 
with  this  solution. 

62.  POTASSIC  IODIDE  produces  a  yellow  precipitate  of  CUPRIC 
IODIDE  with  separation  of  iodine. 

63.  METALLIC  IRON,  when  introduced  into  a   solution  of 
copper,  acidulated  with  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid,  be- 
comes coated  with  a  characteristic  film  of  METALLIC  COPPER  of 
coppery-red  color. 

CuS04+  Fe=Cu  +  FeS04. 

If  the  solution  containing  copper  be  introduced  into  a  plat- 
inum dish  with  a  little  free  hydrochloric  acid  and  a  piece  of 
zinc  introduced,  the  platinum  becomes  rapidly  covered  with  a 
coating  of  copper. 

04  +  Zn=ZnS04+  Pt  +  Cu. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  35 

64.  BLOWPIPE.  —  If  a  dry  compound  of  copper  is  fused  with 
a  little  sodic  carbonate  and  potassic  cyanide  on  charcoal  in  the 
reducing  flame  of  the  blowpipe,  there  is  produced  a  globule 
of  METALLIC  COPPER.     ~No  incrustation  is  formed.     If  the  fused 
mass  is  triturated  with  water  in  a  mortar,  the  charcoal  particles 
are  washed  off,  leaving  shining  scales  of  metallic  copper  per- 
fectly visible  when  only  a  minute  quantity  of  the  compound 
is  used. 

65.  BORAX  and   SODIC   PHOSPHATE  readily  dissolve   cupric 
oxide  in  the  outer  flame.     Beads  are  green  while  hot,  and  blue 
when  cold.     Any  compound  of  copper  imparts  to  borax  bead 
fused  on  platinum  wire  in  the  outer  flame,  a  green  color  while 
hot,  and  blue  when  cold.     If  this  bead  is  detached  and  heated, 
on  charcoal,  with  a  little  metallic  tin,  the  bead  becomes  red 
and  opaque,  and  colorless  when  only  a  minute  quantity  of 
copper  is  present. 

In  the  inner  flame  the  borax  bead  is  made  colorless,  that 
produced  with  sodic  phosphate  and  ammonia  turns  dark-green  ; 
both  acquire  a  brownish-red  tint  upon  cooling. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  58,  6O,  63,  64,  65. 

CADMIUM. 

Symbol,  Cd.  (Greek,  Cadmia  —  Calomine).  —  Atomic  weight,  112.  —  Equiva- 
lence, II.  —  Density,  56.  —  Molecular  weight,  112.  —  Molecular  volume,  2.  — 
Discovered  in  1817  by  Hermann  and  also  by  Stromeyer.  —  Specific  gravity, 
8.604.—  Becomes  brittle  at  82°  C.—  Boiling  point,  1580°  F.—  Fusing  point,. 
442°  F.—  Calculated  Sp.  Gr.  of  vapor,  3,869  ;  observed  specific  gravity,  3.94 
—Atomic  volume,  12.96.—  Electric  conductivity,  at  32°  F.,  23.72.—  Order  of 
ductility  commencing  with  gold,  eleventh.  —  Color,  grayish-white. 

CADMIUM    OXIDES. 

Cadmium  forms  two  oxides,  viz.  :  Cd20  and  CdO. 
CADMOUS  OXIDE  Cd20,  or  suboxide.     This  oxide  may  be  ob- 
tained by  heating  the  oxalate  to  about  the  melting-point  of 
lead.  _^     _^_ 

2C2Cd04+  A<$=C 


It  is  a  green  powder  resembling  chromic  oxide,  and  is  re- 


36  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

solved  by  heat  or  by  acids  into  metallic  cadmium  and  cadmic 
oxide.  It  does  not  yield  metallic  cadmium  with  mercury, 
hence  it  appears  to  be  a  definite  compound  and  not  merely  a 
mixture  of  the  metal  with  cadmic  oxide. 

CADMIC  OXIDE,  CdO,  or  protoxide,  may  be  obtained  by  heat- 
ing metallic  cadmium  in  the  air,  when  it  takes  fire  and  is 
converted  into  cadmic  oxide.  Formed  also  by  igniting  the 
hydrate,  carbonate,  or  nitrate.  Sp.  Gr.  6.9502.  Insoluble  in 
water. 

METALLIC  CADMIUM. 

66.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  when  hot,  converts  the  metal  into 
CADMIC  CHLORIDE  (CdCl2),  liberating  at  the  same  time  hydrogen 

gas.  —*— 

Cd  +  2HCl=CdCl2  +  2H. 

67.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  dilute,  converts  the  metal  into 
CADMIC  SULPHATE  and  liberating  hydrogen  gas. 

Cd  +  H2S04=CdS04-f2H. 

68.  NITRIC  ACID  is  the  best  solvent  for  the  metal,  convert- 
ing it  into  CADMIC   NITRATE  (Cd2N03)  and  liberating  at  the 
same  time  nitrogen  dioxide. 


69.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  fuses  and  deposits  a  reddish- 
brown  incrustation  of  CADMIC  OXIDE. 

CADMIUM    SALTS. 

Most  of  the  cadmium  salts  are  colorless  ;  they  have  a  dis- 
agreeable metallic  taste,  and  act  as  emetics.  The  solutions, 
even  of  the  neutral  salts,  redden  litmus-paper.  The  salts  are 
decomposed  by  heat. 

Solution  lest  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

CADMIC  NITRATE  (Cd2N03). 

70.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  in  a  solution  of  cadmic 
nitrate  a  bright-yellow  precipitate  of  CADMIC  SULPHIDE  (Cd  S). 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  37 

The  solution,  if  acid,  must  be  largely  diluted,  as  the  precipi- 
tate CdS  is  soluble  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid;  not  sol- 
uble in  very  dilute  hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  or  nitric  acid,  but 
soluble  in  boiling  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric  acids  ;  not  soluble 
in  alkalies  or  ammonic  sulphide.  Cadmic  sulphide  is  the  only 
yellow  sulphide  not  soluble  in  ammonic  sulphide. 

71.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
hydrosulphuric  acid. 


72.  POTASSIC   HYDKATE   produces   a  precipitate   of  CADMIC 
HYDRATE,  which  is  white  ;  insoluble  in  excess  of  precipitant. 

Cd2N03  +  2KHO  =  Cd2HO  +  2KN03. 


73.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of  CAD- 
MIC HYDRATE,  soluble  in  excess. 


74.  AMMONIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 
CADMIC  CARBONATE,  insoluble  in  excess.  Dissolves  readily  in 
potassic  cyanide. 


75.  SODIC  PHOSPHATE  precipitates  CADMIC  ORTHOPHOSPHATE 
(Cd3P208).     A  white  powder. 


76.  AMMONIC  OXALATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  when 
added  to  cadmic  chloride  of  cadmic  oxalate  (CdC204.3H20)  ; 
soluble  in  ammonic  hydrate. 


77.  POTASSIC  FERROCYANIDE  produces  a  white  precipitate. 

2Cd2N03  +  K4Cfy=Cd2Cfy  +  4KN03. 

78.  POTASSIC  FERRICYANIDE  produces  a  yellow  precipitate, 
soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

K6Fe2Cl2Nl2r=Cd3Fe2Cl2Nl2 


38  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


METALLIC   CADMIUM    PRECIPITATED. 

ZINC  precipitates  metallic  cadmium  from  its  salts  (in  den- 

drites). 

+  Zn:=Cd+Zn2N03. 


79.  BLOWPIPE.  —  When  a  cadmium  compound  is  mixed 
with  sodic  carbonate  and  fused  on  charcoal  in  the  inner  flame 
of  the  blowpipe,  there  is  produced  a  reddish-brown  incrusta- 
tion, of  cadmic  oxide,  which  becomes  very  distinct  on  cooling; 
no  metal  is  produced. 

CHARACTERISTIC  KEACTIONS,  7O,  79. 

BISMUTH. 

Symbol,  Bi.  (German,  wismat).— Atomic  weight,  210. — Equivalence,  III 
and  V.— Specific  gravity  of  solid,  9,830.— Fusing  point,  507°  F.— Atomic 
volume,  21.34.— Specific  heat,  0.0308.— Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.,  1.245. 
— Order  of  brittleness  commencing  with  antimony  is  third. 

BISMUTH    OXIDES. 

Bismuth  forms  two  definite  oxides,  and  two  others. 

BISMUTHOUS  OXIDE,  Bi203,  or  trioxide. — Formed  when  bis- 
muthous  nitrate  is  gently  ignited.  It  is  a  pale-yellow  powder, 
which  melts  at  red-heat.  It  occurs  native  as  bismuth  ochre. 

BISMUTHIC  OXIDE,  Bi205,  or  protoxide. — Prepared  by  passing 
chlorine  through  a  concentrated  solution  of  potassic  hydrate 
which  contains  bismuthous  hydrate  (BiH03,  or  Bi203.H20)  in 
suspension ;  a  blood-red  substance  then  separates,  which  is  a 
mixture  of  hydrated  bismuthic  acid  and  bismuthic  oxide. 
This  is  treated  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  the 
oxide,  but  in  the  cold  does  not  attract  the  acid.  Bismuthic 
oxide  is  a  bright-red  powder.  "  Bismuthates  are  but  little 
known.  Hydropotassic  bismuthate,  Bi2KH06=:BiK03  BiH03, 
is  known." — AEPPE. 

BISMUTH  DIOXIDE,  Bi202. — This  oxide  is  formed  when  a  solu- 
tion of  a  bismuth-salt  is  treated  with  stannous  chloride.  (A 
corresponding  sulphide  is  known.) 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  39 

BISMTJTHATE  or  BISMUTH,  Bi204.  —  When  bismuthic  oxide  is 
heated  to  100°  C.  it  becomes  converted  into  bisnrathate  of  bis- 
muth (Bi203.Bi205  =  2Bi204). 

METALLIC   BISMUTH. 

80.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL  it  fuses  and  deposits  a  deep- 
yellow  incrustation  of  bismuthous  oxide  (Bi203). 

81.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  does  not  act  upon  bismuth. 

82.  NITRIC   ACID   dissolves  it  rapidly,  converting  it  into 
bismuthous  nitrate  (Bi3N03). 


If  water  is  added  to  the  solution,  a  white  basic  nitrate 
(Bi203.N205  +  H20  =  Bi2N208  +  H20)  is  precipitated. 

83.  SULPHURIC  ACID  dissolves  it  when  concentrated  and 
aided  by  heat,  forming  bismuthous  sulphate,  Bi2(S04)3,  and 
liberating  sulphurous  oxide.  DILUTE  SULPHURIC  ACID  does  not 
dissolve  bismuth. 


BISMUTH    SALTS. 

The  salts  of  bismuthous  oxide  are  non-volatile,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  (bismuthous  chloride).  The  soluble  salts,  in 
the  neutral  state,  redden  litmus-paper,  and  are  decomposed 
when  treated  with  a  large  amount  of  water,  insoluble  basic 
salts  separating,  the  greater  portion  of  the  acid  and  a  small 
quantity  of  bismuth  remaining  in  solution. 

/Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

BISMUTHOUS  NITRATE,  Bi  (N03)3. 

84.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  a  black  precipitate  of 
bismuthous  sulphide  (Bi2S3). 

3  +  3H2S=Bi2S3-f6HN03. 


Insoluble  in  alkalies,  alkaline  sulphides,  and  potassic  cyanide. 
Nitric  acid  decomposes  and  dissolves  it  when  hot.      If  the 


40  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

solutions  to  be  precipitated  from  are  very  acid  from  the  pres- 
ence of  free  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acid,  they  must  be  first 
diluted. 

85.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
hydrosulphuric  acid. 

86.  POTASSIC    HYDEATE  precipitates   a  white  BISMUTHOUS 

HYDEATE  (Bl'203.H20). 


Insoluble  in  excess,  but  soluble  in  dilute  acids. 

87.  AMMONIC   HYDEATE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
potassic  hydrate. 


88.   SODIC  CAEBONATE  produces  a  precipitate  of  BASIC  BIS- 
MUTHOUS CAEBONATE. 


The  precipitate  is  white  ;  insoluble  in  excess  and  in  potassic 
cyanide. 

89.  POTASSIC  DICHEOMATE,  or  CHEOMATE,  produces  a  yellow 
precipitate  ;  when  in  excess  it  has  the  composition  of  3Bi203. 
2Cr203.     If  this  be  treated  with  a  small  quantity  of  acid,  a 
yellow  salt  remains  undissolved,  consisting  of  Bi203.2Cr203  ; 
this  may  be  precipitated  when  bismuth  salt  is  in  excess.  — 
(LowE.)     This  last  precipitate,  according  to  Pearson,  consists 
of  Bi203.Cr203.     Compare  §  89  with  §  24. 

90.  WATEE,  when  added  to  solutions  of  bismuth,  precipi- 
tate WHITE  BASIC  SALTS.      (Bi203.N205  +  H20  =  2Bi  N04  +  H20) 
is  precipitated  from   the   nitrate;   from  the  chloride  a  basic 
chloride  (Bi2Cl6.2Bi203  +  6H20)  is  precipitated. 

"  This  reaction  is  very  characteristic,  and  distinguishes  bismuth  from  all 
other  metals,  except  antimony.  Bismuthous  chloride  exhibits  this  reaction 
in  the  most  striking  manner,  and  it  is  best  to  convert  the  bismuth  compound 
into  this  salt  by  adding  an  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  evaporating  to 
dryness.  The  residue  is  dissolved  in  as  little  hydrochloric  acid  as  possible, 
and  the  solution  poured  into  a  large  quantity  of  water. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  41 

"  Bismuthous  sulphate  is  not  decomposed  by  hydrochloric  acid.  When  a 
solution  is  to  be  tested,  therefore,  which  is  known  to  contain  sulphuric 
acid,  it  is  best  to  precipitate  bismuthous  oxide  by  an  excess  of  ammonia, 
filter,  wash,  and  dissolve  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  proceed  as  above." 

—  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

A   FEW   MISCELLANEOUS   REACTIONS. 
PYROPHOSPHORIC  ACID,  when  added  to  a  solution  of  bismuth- 
ous  nitrate,  produces  a  precipitate  of  BISMUTHOUS  DIPHOSPHATE 
(2Bi203.3P205:=Bi4P602l). 


PHOSPHORIC  ACID  produces  a  precipitate  of  bismuthous  phos- 
phate (orthophosphate)  when  nitric  acid  is  present. 

Bi(N03)3  +  H3P04  +  HN03:=BiP04-f-4HN03. 

OXALIC  ACID  precipitates  BISMUTHOUS  OXALATE  ;  a  white  pre- 
cipitate (Bi3C60,2.15H20). 


•TARTARIC  ACTD  added  to  hot  moderately  strong  bismuthous 
nitrate,  produces  a  white  precipitate  of  BISMUTHOUS  TARTRATE. 

Cl2H,2.Bi20,8.6H20  =  Bi203.3C4H405.6H20. 

METALLIC   BISMUTH    PRECIPITATED. 
Metallic  bismuth  is  precipitated  from  its  solutions  by  metal- 
lic iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin,  viz.  : 


91.  BLOWPIPE.  —  When  solid  compounds  of  bismuth  are 
fused  with  sodic  carbonate  in  the  reducing  flame  of  the  blow- 
pipe, BRITTLE  METALLIC  GLOBULES  of  metal  are  produced,  as 
also  an  incrustation  of  BISMUTHOUS  OXIDE,  which  is  yellow. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  89,  9O,  91. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


SCHEME  FOR  THE  SEPARATION  AND  DETECTION  OF  THE 
MEMBERS  OF  THE  FIRST  DIVISION  OF  GROUP  II. 

The  solution  to  be  examined  is  supposed  to  contain  a  salt 
of  mercuric  oxide,  copper,  cadmium,  lead,  and  bismuth. 

Add  hydrochloric  acid — no  precipitate.  Add  to  the  solu- 
tion hydrosulphuric  acid  (H2S) ;  there  is  produced  a  precipitate 
of  bismuthous  sulphide  (Bi2S3),  plumbic  sulphide,  (PbS),  cad- 
rnic  sulphide  (CdS),  mercuric  sulphide  (HgS),  and  cupric  sul- 
phide (CuS). 


"Wash  completely  to  expel  the  chlorine  in  the  mixture;  add 
moderately  strong  nitric  acid  (free  from  hydrochloric),  and 
warm,  then  filter. 

RESIDUE.  SOLUTION. 

Is  composed   of        The  solution  contains  the  Pb,  Cu,  Bi,  and  Cd.     Add 
HgS  +  S.  "Black."   dilute    sulphuric   acid;    concentrate    solution  to    expel 
HNO, 


Dissolve  in  a  little 

1   U*v*    j     ctvLvt.     1  1  g  W     CtllU.     111  tni  . 

aqua-regia.      Add 

Residue. 

Solution 

stannous  chloride  ; 

PbS04. 

Contains  the  Cu,  Bi,  and  Cd.      Add  NH4HQ 

a  precipitate  is 

'  ,  ' 

and  filter. 

.mercuric  chloride, 

See  §21. 

,,Hg2Cl2.  Heat.  Me- 

Precipitate. 

Filtrate  Blue 

tallic  mercury   is 

Bi203.H30. 

Contains  the  Cu  and  Cd.    Divide. 

formed.    See  §48. 

Wash,    dis- 
solve in  HC1. 

1st  Part. 

2d  Part. 

Test  as  §  90. 

Acidulate  with 

Add  KCN  to  de- 

acetic acid.  Add 

stroy  blue  color, 

K4Cfy,  a  preci- 

thenH2S.   Pre- 

pitate   Cu2Cfy. 

cipitate        CdS. 

See  8  60 

Y—  - 

KJV-'Vy     ^   V/V7. 

See  §  70. 

SECOND    DIVISION   OF  GROUP   H. 
Metals,  the   sulphides   of  which   are  SOLUBLE  IN  AMMONIC 

SULPHIDE. 

AKSENIC,  ANTIMONY,  TIN,  GOLD,  PLATINUM. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  43 


ARSENIC. 

Symbol,  As.  (Greek,  arsenicon,  potent).  —  Atomic  weight,  75.  —  Equivalence, 
III  and  V.  —  Density,  150.  —  Molecular  weight,  300.  —  Molecular  volume,  2.  — 
1  litre  of  arsenic  vapor  weighs  13.44  grams  (150  criths).  —  Specific  gravity, 
5.7  to  5.959  (Miller).—  Atomic  volume,  12.96.—  Specific  heat,  0.0814.—  Elec- 
tric conductivity  at  32°  F.,  4.76.—  Volatilizes  at  356°  F.—  Order  of  brittleness 
commencing  with  antimony,  second.  —  Color,  dark-gray  ;  bright  only  when 
freshly  fractured. 

ARSENIC   OXIDES. 

Arsenic  forms  TWO  WELL-DEFINED  OXIDES,  viz.  :  Arsenious 
oxide  As203,  and  arsenic  oxide  As205.  The  black  film  which 
forms  on  the  surface  of  the  metal  is  supposed  to  be  a  SUB- 
OXIDE,  but  it  is  more  probably  a  mixture  of  metallic  arsenic 
with  arsenious  oxide. 

ARSENIOUS  OXIDE,  As203,  in  the  hydrated  state  ARSENIOUS 
ACID.  Occurs  native  in  the  mineral  arsenite  or  arsenolite. 
Formed  when  arsenic  is  volatilized  in  contact  with  free 
oxygen,  as  when  the  metal  is  heated  in  a  glass  tube  through 
which  a  current  of  air  is  passing. 


A<?=As203. 

It  is  a  white  solid.    Sp.  Gr.  3.7385  (Giiibourt).    Volatilizes  at 
about  218°  C.     Insoluble  in  ether  ;  nearly  so  in  alcohol. 

ARSENIC  OXIDE,  As205,  in  the  hydrated  state  arsenic  acid. 
This  compound  is  formed  by  oxidizing  arsenious  oxide  or 
arsenious  acid  with  nitric  acid,  aqua-regia,  hypochlorous  acid, 
or  other  oxidizing  agents.  Dissolve  As203  in  hot  HCl  and 
oxidize  by  adding  HN03,  the  latter  being  added  as  long  as  red 
vapors  are  produced,  the  whole  then  cautiously  evaporated  to 
complete  dryness,  and  the  residue  heated  to  low  redness.  Ar- 
senic oxide  is  produced  as  a  white  anhydrous  mass  which  has 
no  action  on  litmus-paper.  Strongly-heated  arsenious  oxide 
and  free  oxygen  are  produced. 

As205+  A<S=As2 


44  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

METALLIC   ARSENIC. 

92.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  does  not  fuse,  but  gives  off 
fumes  of  arsenious  oxide  (As203),  a  portion  of  which  is  deposited 
as  a  white  incrustation.    A  peculiar  ALLIACEOUS  ODOR  is  emitted 
at  the  same  time. 

93.  HEATED  IN    A  TUBE  which   has  one   end   closed,   the 
arsenic  sublimes,  forming  a  blacfo,  shining  metallic  RING  on 
the  glass. 

94.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  does  not  attack  metallic  arsenic. 

95.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  dilute,  does  not  attack  metallic  ar- 
senic, but  boiling  concentrated  acid  oxidizes  it  to  arsenious 
oxide,  evolving  sulphurous  oxide. 


96.  NITRIC  ACID,  when  dilute,  converts  arsenic  by  the  aid 
of  heat  into  arsenious  acid. 


Concentrated   nitric   acid   converts  the  metal  partially  into 
arsenic  oxide  (As205). 


=  3As205+5N202 
ARSENIOUS  ACID  (2H3As03=:3H2O.As203). 
/Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

ARSENIOUS  ACID,  H3As03. 

97.  HTDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  no  precipitate  with 
ARSENIOUS  ACID,  but  imparts  to  the  solution  a  yellow  color. 
If  hydrochloric  acid  be  added,  a  precipitate  of  ARSENIOUS  SUL- 
PHIDE (As2S3)  is  produced,  which  is  soluble  in  ammonic  sul- 
phide, from  which  it  may  be  reprecipitated  by  acids. 

+  3H2S+HCl=As2S3 


Ammonic  carbonate  dissolves  arsenious  sulphide,  especially 
when  heated,  from  which  it  can  be  reprecipitated  by  means 
of  acids.  It  is  readily  dissolved  by  hot  nitric  acid  ;  also  by 
hydrochloric  acid,  with  potassic  chlorate. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  45 

98.  AMMONTC  SULPHIDE  produces  no  precipitate;  simply 
imparts  to  the  solution  a  yellow  color.  If  hydrochloric  acid 
be  added,  a  yellow  precipitate  of  ARSENIOUS  SULPHIDE  is  pro- 
duced, soluble  in  excess. 


99.  ARGENTIC  NITRATE  produces  no  precipitate  in  arsenious 
acid,  but  if  ammonic  hydrate  be  cautiously  added,  a  yellow 
precipitate  of  ARGENTIC  ARSENITE  is  produced,  which  dissolves 
easily  in  excess  of  amrnonic  hydrate  and  in  nitric  acid. 


+  3H20. 

"  In  making  this  test,  add  the  argentic  nitrate,  and  then  (incline  the  test- 
tube)  let  one  or  two  drops  of  ammonia  run  down  so  as  to  form  a  layer  on  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  to  be  tested.  Where  the  two  liquids  are  in  contact  a 
bright  yellow  ring  of  argentic  ars^nite  (2Ag2O.As203  =Ag4As2O5)  will  be  seen." 

—  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

1OO.  CUPRIO  SULPHATE  produces  no  precipitate,  but  if 
ammonic  hydrate  be  added,  as  in  §  94,  a  YELLOWISH-GREEN 
CUPRIO  ARSENITE  (Scheele's  green;  2CuO.As203=Cu2As205)  is 
precipitated. 


1O1.  KEINSCH'S  TEST.  —  If  a  solution  of  arsenious  acid, 
mixed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  be  heated  with  a  clean  strip  of 
METALLIC  COPPER,  an  iron-gray  film  or  incrustation  is  de- 
posited on  the  copper  even  in  highly  diluted  solutions,  which 
is  METALLIC  ARSENIC  ;  this  film  may  be  detached  in  black  scales 
by  long  boiling.  The  thickness  of  the  film  depends  on  the 
concentration  of  the  solution  and  the  amount  of  arsenious 
acid  present.  The  film  may  be  separated  from  the  copper  by 
boiling  the  strips  in  ammonic  hydrate,  when  minute  spangles 
separate.  If  the  film  separated  by  boiling  water  be  dried, 
and  introduced  into  a  tube  closed  at  one  end,  on  the  applica- 


46  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

tion  of  heat  the  arsenic  is  caused  to  sublime  as  a  shining  ring, 
if  much  is  present,  or  as  a  white  crystalline  ring  of  arsenious 
oxide,  if  the  quantity  is  small. 

102.  METALLIC  ZINC. — If  arsenious  acid  is  introduced  into 
a  flask  in  which  hydrogen  gas  is  being  evolved  from  pure  zinc 
and  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the  zinc  exidizes  not  only  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  oxygen  of  the  water,  but  also  at  the  expense  of 
that  of  the  arsenious  acid,  and  the  arsenic  separates  accordingly 
in  the  metallic  state ;  but  a  portion  of  the  metal  combines  in 
the  moment  of  its  separation  with  the  liberated  hydrogen  of 
the  water,  forming  HYDROGEN    AESENIDE   or  ARSINE   (H3As). 
This  reaction  affords  a  means  for  the  detection  of  even  the 
most  minute  quantities  of  arsenic. 

103.  MARSH'S  TEST. — This  experiment  is  best  conducted 
in  the  -apparatus  here  figured.     Into  the  flask  (a)  containing 


granulated  (pure)  zinc  and  distilled  water,  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  is  introduced.  Hydrogen  is  liberated,  which,  passing 
through  the  calcic  chloride  tube  (b\  where  it  is  dried,  escapes 
at  the  extremity  of  the  apparatus.  As  soon  as  the  air  is  com- 
pletely expelled  the  hydrogen  may  be  ignited. 

If  the  solution  containing  the  arsenic  be  now  poured  into 
the  flask,  hydrogen  arsenide  will  be  evolved,  and  the  flame 
changed  to  a  livid  Hue. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.--  47 

104.  1.  If  a  piece  of  cold  porcelain  (the  cover  of  a  porcelain 
crucible)  be  held  in  the  flame,  a  BLACK  DEPOSIT  of  metallic 
arsenic  is  produced.     The  stain  DISAPPEARS,  when  moistened 
with  calcic  hypochlorite  (Ca2ClO). 

105.  2.  If  one  or  two  drops  of  strong  nitric  acid  be  poured 
on  an  arsenic  stain,  and  then  gently  evaporated,  it  is  converted 
into  arsenic  oxide.     By  adding  a  drop  of  argentic  nitrate,  and 
cautiously  neutralizing  with   ammonic  hydrate,  a   brick-red 
argentic  arseniate  (3Ag2O.As205  =  Ag6As208=2Ag3As04)  is  pro- 
duced.    An  excess  of  ammonic  hydrate  dissolves  the  red  ar- 
seniate. 

106.  3.  If  tube  <?,  dy  (which  should  be  of  hard  glass  and 
free  from  lead)  be  strongly  heated  between  the  points  c  and  d, 
the  hydrogen  arsenide  is  decomposed,  METALLIC  ARSENIC  being 
deposited  in  the  form  of  a  SHINING  BLACK  MIRROR  on  the  cold 
part  of  the  tube. 

107.  4.  If  a  short  tube  be  adjusted,  by  means  of  a  caout- 
chouc connector,  to  the  extremity  of  the  tube  c,  d,  and  the  gas 
passed  into  a  solution  of  ARGENTIC  NITRATE,  a  BLACK  PRECIPI- 
TATE of  metallic  silver  is  produced,  while  the  arsenic  passes 
into  solution.     On  neutralizing  the  filtered  liquid  (see  §  99) 
with  AMMONIA,  the  YELLOW  ARGENTIC  ARSENITE  is  precipitated. 

12AgN03  +  2AsH3  +  3H20=12Ag+As203  +  12HN03. 

108.  FLEETMAN'S   TEST. — If  a  solution  containing  arsenic 
be  mixed  with  a  large  excess  of  a  concentrate  solution  of 
potassic  hydrate,  and  boiled  with  granulated  ZINC,  hydrogen 
arsenide  is  evolved.     A  piece  of  filter-paper  moistened  with  a 
solution  of  ARGENTIC  NITRATE,  assumes  a  PURPLISH-BLACK  color 
if  exposed  to  this  gas.     This  experiment  may  be  conducted  in 
a  small  flask,  or  large  test-tube,  supplied  with  a  cork,  through 
which  passes  a  small  tube,  drawn  to  a  point. 

109.  BLOWPIPE. — Dry  compounds  of  arsenic,  when  heated 
with  sodic  carbonate  on  charcoal  in  the  inner  flame  of  the 
blowpipe,  emit  a  peculiar  GARLIC  ODOR.      This  odor  has  its 
origin  in  the  reduction  and  re-oxidation  of  the  arsenic ;  very 
minute  quantities  may  be  detected  in  that  way. 


48  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

110.  Heated  with   sodic  carbonate  and  a  little  potassic 
cyanide,  in  a  dry  tube  closed  at  one  end,  a  black  mirror  of 

METALLIC  ARSENIC  Sublimes. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,   92,   93,    10O,   1O1,    1O4, 
1O5,  1O6,  1O7,  1O9,  11O. 

ARSENIC  ACID,  H3As04. 
Solution  lest  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

ARSENIC  ACID  H3As04.(3H2O.As205=2H3As04). 

111.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  fails  to  produce  a  precipitate  in 
arsenic  acid,  but  if  the  acid  be  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid 
and  the  solution  warmed  and  allowed  to  stand,  a  yellow  pre- 
cipitate of  ARSENIC  SULPHIDE,  As2S5,  is  produced,  which  is  sol- 
uble in  ammonic  sulphide.     It  is  re-precipitated  from  this 
solution  by  acids. 


"  In  order  to  separate  arsenic  oxide  completely  by 
hydrosulphuric  acid,  it  is  necessary  first  to  reduce  it  to  arseni- 
ous  oxide  by  adding  a  little  sodic  sulphite  to  the  solution. 
The  excess  of  sulphurous  acid  is  then  to  be  removed  by  boiling 
the  liquid."  —  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

113.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  ARSENIC  SULPHIDE,  which 
is  held  in  solution  as  ammonic-arsenic  sulphide. 

2H3As04  +  6NH4HS=NH4HS.As2S5-|-5NH4HO  +  3H20. 

If  to  this  solution  an  acid  be  added,  the  double  sulphide  is 
decomposed  and  arsenic  sulphide  is  precipitated  ;  this  precipi- 
tate separates  more  rapidly  than  in  the  case  of  hydrosulphuric 
acid  (§  111). 


114.  ARGENTIC  NITRATE  produces,  under  the  circumstances 
stated  in  §  105,  a  brick-red  precipitate  of  ARGENTIC  ARSENIATE, 
easily  soluble  in  nitric  acid  and  in  ammonic  hydrate.  When 
free  nitric  acid  is  present,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  neutralize 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  49 

very  carefully  with  ammonic  hydrate.  As  ARGENTIC  ARSENIATE 
is  slightly  soluble  in  ammonic  nitrate  the  precipitate  is  not 
always  produced. 

2H3As04  +  6AgN03  +  3NH4HO=2Ag3As04+NH4N03  + 
3HN03  +  3H20. 

115.  Hydrochloric  acids  or  chlorides,  if  present,  should  be 
removed  by  precipitation  with  argentic  nitrate,  a  little  nitric 
acid  being  added  to  retain  the  arseniate  in  solution.     If  am- 
monic hydrate  is  now  added  to  the  filtered  liquid,  the  brick- 
red  argentic  arsenite  (3Ag2O.As205=2Ag3As04)  is  precipitated. 

116.  CUPRIC  SULPHATE,  under  the  same  circumstances  as  in 
§  95,  produces  a  greenish-blue  precipitate  of  cupric  arseniate 
(2CuO.H2O.As205=Cu2H2As208:=2CuHAs04),    soluble  in  nitric 
acid  and  in  ammonic  hydrate. 

117.  METALLIC  ZINC  behaves  the  same  as  with  arsenious 
acid.     (See  §  97,  98.) 

118.  METALLIC  COPPER  (Reinsch's  test)  acts  as  with  arseni- 
ous acid,  except  that  much  more  hydrochloric  acid  is  to  be 
added  in  order  to  insure  reduction.     (See  §  96.) 

119.  AMMONIO-MAGNESIC  ARSENIATE  [2MgO.(NH4)20,As205  + 
12H20=  Mg2(NH4)2As208  =  2Mg(NH4)As.04)    is    precipitated 
when  arsenic  acid  is  added  to  a  clear  mixture  of  (magnesic 
sulphate,  ammonic  chloride,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  am- 
monia).    It  separates  from  concentrated  solutions  immediately, 
from  dilute  solutions  after  some  time. 


The  above  magnesia  mixture  may  be  prepared  by  dissolv- 
ing in  water  24.6  grams  of  crystallized  magnesic  sulphate  and 
33  grams  of  ammonic  chloride,  adding  some  ammonic  hydrate 
and  diluting  to  the  volume  of  a  litre. 

12O.  BLOWPIPE.—  (See  Arsenious  Acid,  §  109,  110.) 


50  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

ANTIMONY. 

Symbol,  Sb.  (Arabic,  al-ithruidem).  —  Atomic  weight,  122.  —  Equivalence, 
III  and  V.—  Density,  244  (?)—  Molecular  weight,  488  (?)—  Molecular  volume,  2. 
—  1  litre  of  antimony  vapor  weighs,  21.86  grams  (244  criths)  (?)  —  Sp.  Gr.  6.715. 
—Melts  at  450°  C.—  Atomic  volume,  18.16.—  Specific  heat,  0.0508.—  Fusing 
point,  1150°  F.—  Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.,  4.65.—  Order  of  brittleness, 
first.  —  Bluish-white  color. 

ANTIMONY   OXIDES. 

Antimony  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  THREE  definite  com- 
pounds, Sb203  ;  Sb204  ;  Sb205. 

ANTIMONIOUS  OXIDE,  Sb203,  occurs  as  a  natural  mineral  (Yal- 
entinite,  white  antimony,  antimony  -bloom,  weisspiessglanzez). 
It  may  be  prepared  by  burning  the  metal  in  the  air. 


Easiest  mode  of  obtaining  it  is  to  heat  antimonious  sulphide 
with  strong  hydrochloric  acid,  as  long  as  hydrosulphuric  acid 
goes  off,  and  pour  the  resulting  solution  of  antimonious  chlo- 
ride into  a  boiling  solution  of  sodic  carbonate.  A  crystalline 
powder  is  then  deposited  consisting  (according  to  Graham)  of 
antimonious  oxide. 


2SbCl3  +  2Na2C03  =  Sb203  +  6NaCl  +  3Cc 

Regnault,  however,  states  ("  Cours  de  Chimie,"  iii.,  239) 
that  the  oxide  obtained  is  a  hydrate  containing  Sb203,  H20,  or 
SbH02  (meta-antimonious  acid). 

Antimonious  oxide  dissolves  sparingly  in  water;  more 
freely  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid.  Dissolves  when  boiled 
with  AQUEOUS  TARTAKIC  ACID,  and  very  easily  in  hydropotassic 
tartrate  (cream  of  tartar),  forming  antimonio-potassic-tartrate 
C4H4KSb07  (tartar  emetic).  It  is  quite  insoluble  in  nitric 
acid  of  ordinary  strength,  but  dissolves  in  cold  fuming  nitric 
acid,  forming  a  solution  which  deposits  pearly  scales  of  a 
nitrate  (N205.2Sb203  =  Sb4N20,  ,).  It  dissolves  in.  fuming 
sulphuric  acid,  the  solution  depositing  shining  scales  of  a 
sulphate  containing  3S03.Sb203  =  Sb2S30|2. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  51 

ANTIMONIC  OXIDE,  Sb205  ;  in  the  hydrated  state  antimonic 
acid.  This  compound  is  obtained  as  a  hydrate  by  treating 
antimony  with  nitric  acid,  or  with  aqua-regia  containing  an 
excess  of  nitric  acid;  by  precipitating  a  solution  of  potassic 
antimonate  with  an  acid  ;  by  decomposing  antimonic  chloride 
with  water.  The  hydrate  oxide  obtained  by  either  of  these 
methods  gives  off  its  water  at  a  heat  below  redness,  and  yields 
antimonic  oxide  as  a  yellowish  powder. 

The  hydrated  oxides  obtained  by  the  three  methods  given 
above  are  by  no  means  identical.  That  obtained  by  the  first 
and  second  methods  is  monobasic,  and,  according  to  £erselius, 
contains  Sb205.H20,  or  SbH03 ;  according  to  Fremy,  Sb2O5. 
5H20,  or  SbH505,  when  dried  at  mean  temperature;  but  the 
acid  obtained  by  the  action  of  water  on  antimonic  chloride  is 
dibasic,  and  contains,  according  to  Fremy,  Sb205.4H20.  The 
acids  are  antimonic  HSb03  ;  met-antimonic,  pyro-antimonic,  or 
di-antimonic,  H4Sb207;  ortho-antimonic,  H3Sb04. 

ANTIMONOSO  -  ANTIMONIC  OXIDE,  Sb204.  —  Some  consider 
this  oxide  as  (Sb203  +  Sb205=2Sb204)  a  compound  of  the 
antimonious  and  antimonic  oxides.  This  oxide  forms  salts 
with  the  alkalies  (often  called  antimonites),  which  may  be  ob- 
tained solid.  Potassic  antimonite,  K2O.Sb204,  by  mixing  the 
solution  of  this  salt  with  hydrochloric  acid,  a  precipitate  of 
hydrated  antimonoso-antimonic  oxide,  H2O.Sb204,  is  produced. 
The  salt  K2O.Sb204  may  be  regarded  as  (K2O.Sb203)  +  (K2O. 
Sb205)  or  KSb02.KSb03. 

METALLIC   ANTIMONY. 

121.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL  it  burns  brilliantly,  emitting 
copious  white  inodorous  vapors,  and  if  left  to  cool  before  it  is 
completely  burnt  away,  becomes  covered  with  a  white  net- 
work of  the  crystallized  antimonious  oxide.  The  white  fumes 
form  an  incrustation  on  the  charcoal. 

±22.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  does  not  attack  antimony  in  the 
solid  (compact)  state  even  on  boiling;  but  if  the  antimony  is  in 
a  fine  powder  it  is  dissolved  by  the  boiling  acid,  and  hydrogen 
gas  is  given  off. 


52  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

123.  NITRIC    ACID  rapidly   oxidizes   it,   forming  a  white 
powder,  which  differs  in  composition  according  as  the  acid 
used  is  dilute  or  concentrated. 

MODERATELY  DILUTE  ACID,  the  product  consists  of  antimoni- 
ous  oxide  mixed  with  antimonic  oxide  (Sb203.Sb205). 

12Sb  +  16HN03=3(Sb203.Sb205)  +  SN2024SH20. 

DILUTE  ACID  converts  it  almost  entirely  into  ANTIMONIOUS 
OXIDE. 

CONCENTRATED  ACID  converts  it  almost  entirely  into  ANTI- 
MONIC OXIDE.  The  acid  oxidizes  it,  but  does  not  dissolve  it. 

124.  NITROHYDROCHLORIC   ACID   dissolves   the  metal  when 
hot,  forming  antimonious  chloride  (SbCl3)  when  the  acid  is  not 
very  concentrated,  and  antimonic  chloride  (SbCl5)  when  the 
acid  is  very  concentrated. 


125.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  dilute,  does  not  attack  anti- 
mony ;  but  if  heated  concentrated  acid  be  employed,  the  metal 
is  converted  into  antimonious  sulphate  (Sb203.S03=:Sb2S06) 
with  evolution  of  sulphurous  oxide. 

2Sb+4H2S04(conc.)+A(5=Sb2S06+'3SO^+4H20. 

SALT  OF  ANTIMONIOUS  OXIDE. 

Most  of  the  salts  of  this  oxide  are  decomposed  upon  ignition. 
The  soluble  neutral  salts  redden  litmus-paper.  When  heated 
with  a  large  amount  of  water,  they  are  decomposed  into  basic 
salts  and  acid  solutions.  Thus:  water  precipitates  from  a 
hydrochloric  acid  solution  of  antimonious  chloride  (SbCl3), 
antimonious  oxychloride  (2SbCl3.5Sb203)  (powder  of  algaroth). 
This  precipitate  is  soluble  in  tartaric  acid,  therefore  it  is  not 
precipitated  in  the  presence  of  this  acid. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions: 

ANTIMONIOUS  CHLORIDE,  SbCl3. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  53 

126.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  an  orange-red  precip- 
itate of  ANTIMONIOUS  SULPHIDE  (Sb2S3)  when  added  to  an  acid 
solution  of  antimonious  salts. 


+  3H2S=Sb2S3 

From  alkaline  and  neutral  solutions  the  ANTIMONIOTJS  *  suL7 
PHIDE  is  only  partially  precipitated. 

ANTIMONIOUS  SULPHIDE  dissolves  .readily  in  potassic  hydrate 
and  ammonic  sulphide,  sparingly  soluble  in  ammonic  hydrate. 
Boiling  hydrochloric  acid  (concentrated)  dissolves  it  with 
evolution  of  hydrosulphuric  acid  gas.  Boiling  nitric  acid  dis- 
solves a  portion,  and  converts  the  rest  into  a  white  insoluble 
powder. 

127.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  an  orange-red  precipitate 
of  antimonious  sulphide. 

2SbCl3  +  3NH4HS=Sb2S3  +  3HCl  +  3NH4Cl. 

This  precipitate  is  soluble  in  excess,  especially  when  the 
precipitant  is  rich  in  sulphur. 

128.  WATER,  when  added  in  large  quantities,  produces  a 
white  precipitate  of  antimonious  oxychloride  (2SbCl3.5Sb203) 
(according  to-Dunos  and  Bucholz),  which  is  soluble  in  tartaric 
acid,  whereby  it  is  distinguished  from  bismuth  (§  85).     The 
formation  of  this  precipitate  is  prevented  if  tartaric  acid  or 
much  free  hydrochloric  acid  is  added  before  the  addition  of 
the  water. 

129.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 
antimonious  acid  (HSb02  or  Sb203.H20),  which  is  soluble  in 
excess.    This  solution  precipitates  from  argentic  nitrate,  black, 
metallic  silver  —  the  antimonious  oxide  being  changed  into  anti- 
monic  oxide. 

This  precipitate  is  readily  distinguished  from  that  which  is 
produced  by  potassic  hydrate  alone,  in  silver  solutions,  by  its 
insolubility  in  ammonic  hydrate.  (See  §  9.)  The  presence  of 
tartaric  acid  prevents  the  precipitation. 

130.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
potassic  hyarate. 


54:  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

131.  AMMONIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  precipitate  of  white 

HYDRATED   ANTIMONIOUS    OXIDE    Or   ANTIMONIOUS    ACID,   HSb02. 


The  precipitate  is  partially  soluble  in  excess.  The  presence 
of  tartaric  acid  prevents  the  precipitation. 

132.  SODIC  CARBONATE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
ammonic  carbonate,  viz.  :  HSb02.  —  (REGNAULT.) 


133.  METALLIC  ZINC  precipitates  antimony  from  its  solution 
in  the  form  of  a  BLACK  POWDER.     If  free  acid  be  present,  ANTI- 
MONIOUS  HYDRIDE,  SbH3,  (Stibine)  is  evolved.     This  experiment 
is  conducted  precisely  as  in  the  case  of  arsenic  (§  102). 

134.  1.  If  a  piece  of  cold  porcelain  is  held  in  the  flame,  a 
BLACK  DEPOSIT  of  metallic  antimony  is  produced,  which  does 
not  dissolve  when  treated  with  calcic  hypochlorite  (Ca2CO). 

135.  If  one  or  two  drops  of  nitric  acid  be  poured  on  the 
antimony  stain,  and  gently  evaporated,  it  is  converted  into 

White     ANTIMONIC     OXIDE.         ARGENTIC     NITRATE     produces     no 

change.     (See  §  100.) 

136.  If  the  tube  <?,  d,  be  strongly  heated,  a  metallic  ring  is 
deposited,  as  in  the  case  of  arsenic  (§101).- 

137.  If  ANTIMONIOUS  HYDRIDE  be  passed  into  a  solution  of 
ARGENTIC  NITRATE,  A  BLACK  pRECLPiTATE  of  argentic  antimonide 
is  produced  (SbAg3). 

3AgN03+SbH3  =  SbAg3  +  3HN03. 

On  neutralizing  the  filtered  liquid  by  AMMONIC  HYDRATE,  no 
precipitate  is  produced.  (Comp.  ARSENIC,  §  107.) 

To  detect  antimony  in  argentic  antimonide  it  should  be 
washed,  boiled  with  nitric  acid  (which  dissolves  only  the  anti- 
mony), and  filtered.  Hydrosulphuric  acid  should  then  be 
added  to  the  filtrate,  and  on  boiling,  orange-red  antimonious 
sulphide  separates. 

138.  Metallic  zinc  boiled  with  a  solution  of  antimony,  to 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  55 

which  a  very  large  excess  of  POTASSIO  HYDRATE  has  been 
added,  liberates  pure  hydrogen,  which  does  NOT  DISCOLOR  paper 
moistened  with  a  solution  of  argentic  nitrate.  (See  §  103.) 

139.  AURIC  CHLORIDE,  when  added  to  a  solution  of  antimoni- 
ous  chloride  or  other  antimonious  salts,  forms  a  YELLOW  pre- 
cipitate of  METALLIC  GOLD,  autimonic  oxide  at  the  same  time 
being  precipitated  as  a  white  powder,  unless  the  solution  con- 
tains a  large  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid. 


The  reduction  is  slow  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  is  acceler- 
ated by  heating.  In  a  solution  of  antimonious  acid  in  potassic 
hydrate,  auric  chloride  produces  a  black  precipitate  which 
forms  a  very  delicate  test  for  antimonious  oxide. 

140.  METALLIC  COPPER  precipitates  antimony  from  its  solu- 
tions, in  the  form  of  a  bright  metallic  film,  which  may  be 
dissolved  off  by  a  solution  of  potassic  permanganate,  yielding  a 
solution  which  will  give  the  characteristic  red  precipitate  with 
hydrosulphuric  acid.  —  (ODLING.) 

141.  BLOWPIPE.  —  Solid    compounds    of   antimony,   mixed 
with  sodic  carbonate   (and  potassic   cyanide),  and  fused  on 
charcoal  in  the  inner  flame,  yield  BRITTLE  GLOBULES  of  METAL- 
LIC ANTIMONY,  forming  at  the  same  time  a  WHITE  INCRUSTATION 
of  antimonious  oxide. 

CHARACTERISTIC  EEACTIONS,   123,  128,  129,  134,  135, 
136,  137. 

ANTIMONIC   OXIDE. 

Antimonic  oxide  (Sb203)  is  pale-yellow,  its  hydrates  or  acids 
(H5Sb05  ortho-antimoriic  acid;  HSb03  dimeta-antimonic  acid; 
H4Sb207  diantimonic  acid)  are  white.  The  oxide  and  acids 
are  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  almost  insoluble  in  nitric 
acid,  but  dissolves  pretty  readily  in  hot  concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid,  forming  antimonic  chloride,  which  becomes  turbid 
on  addition  of  water. 

Solution  ~best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

POTASSIC  ANTEMONIATE,  K2Sb206. 


56  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

142.  NITRIC  ACID  produces  a  white  precipitate  of  HYDRATED 

ANTIMONIC  ACID  (Sb205.4H20). 

143.  HYDROCHLORIC   ACED  precipitates  the   same  as   with 
nitric  acid  soluble  in  excess. 

144.  HYDROSTJLPHURIC  ACID,  in  a  neutral  solution,  produces 
no  precipitate.     If  an  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid  is  present, 
an  orange-red  precipitate  of  antimonic  sulphide  (Sb2S5)  is  pro- 
duced. 


ANTIMONIC  SULPHIDE  is  soluble  in  ammonic  sulphide,  from 
which  it  may  be  precipitated  by  acids. 

145.  POTASSIC   HYDRATE   in   ACID   solutions   precipitates   a 
white  hydrate   of  antimonic   acid    (Sb205.4H20),    soluble   in 
excess. 

146.  ARGENTIC    NITRATE   produces   in   solutions   of   ANTI- 
MONIC OXIDE  to  which  an  excess  of  potassic  hydrate  has  been 
added,  a  black  precipitate  of  argentic  oxide,  which  is  readily 
soluble   in   AMMONIC   HYDRATE.      This   reaction   distinguishes 
antimonic  oxide  from  the  salts  of  antimonious  oxide.     (See 


147.  ANTIMONIC  OXIDE,  when  boiled  with  hydrochloric  acid 
and  potassic  iodide,  liberates  IODINE,  which  dissolves  in  the 
hydriodic  acid  present,  giving  a  BROWN  COLOR  to  the  solution. 

148.  POTASSIC  METANTIMONIATE  (K2H2Sb207.6H20)  is  a  sol- 
uble salt,  whilst  sodic  metantimoniate  (Na2H2Sb207.6H20)  is 
insoluble.     This  difference  in  the  two  salts  make  the  potassie 
metantimoniate  valuable  as  a  test  for  sodic  salts. 

149.  METALLIC  ZINC  acts  as  with  antimonious  salts  (§  137). 

150.  BLOWPIPE.  —  See  Antimonious  Salts.     (See  §  141.) 

TIN, 

Symbol,  Sn.  —  Atomic  weight,  118.  —  Equivalence,  II  and  IV.—  Molecular 
weight,  236.—  Brilliant  white  metal.—  Specific  gravity,  7.292.—  Melts  at 
230°  C.—  Atomic  volume,  16.20.—  Specific  heat,  0.0562.—  Fusing  point, 
442°  F.—  Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.,  12.36.—  Order  of  malleability  com- 
mencing with  gold,  fourth  ;  of  ductility,  seventh  ;  heat-conducting  power, 
seventh.—  Tenacity,  63  (iron  as  1000). 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  57 

TIN    OXIDES. 

Tin  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  three  oxides,  SnO  ;  Sn203  ; 
SnO2. 

STANNOUS  OXIDE,  SnO,  or  protoxide,  may  be  prepared  by 
heating  -stannous  oxalate  out  of  contact  with  the  air  (Liebig). 
By  precipitating  stannous  chloride  with  sodic  carbonate,  and 
heating  the  washed  and  dried  precipitate  of  stannous  hydrate 
in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen  or  carbonic  oxide  to  a  tempera- 
ture not  exceeding  80°  C.,  the  anhydrous  oxide  is  thus  obtained 
as  a  brown  or  black  powder  (Berzelius).  According  to  Otto, 
the  hydrate  sometimes  changes  to  the  black  oxide  on  the  filter, 
or  the  sides  of  the  precipitating  vessel,  whence  it  is  touched 
with  a  glass  rod.  Stannous  oxide  is  a  black  powder  of  specific 
gravity  6.666  (Berzelius).  Permanent  in  the  air  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  but  easily  oxidized  to  stannic  oxide  when  heated. 
Stannous  hydrate,  Sn2H203  =  2SnO.H20. 

TIN  SESQUIOXIDE,  Sn203.  —  This  oxide  was  obtained  by  Fuchs 
in  combination  with  water,  by  diffusing  recently-precipitated 
ferric  oxide  in  a  solution  of  stannous  chloride  not  containing  an 
excess  of  acid,  and  afterward  boiling  the  mixture.  Sesquioxide 
of  tin  is  then  precipitated. 


Thus  obtained  is  a  slimy  gray  matter  ;  ammonic  hydrate  dis- 
solves it  readily  (not  so  stannous  oxide).  This  oxide  produces 
a  purple  precipitate  with  auric  chloride  (not  so  stannic  oxide). 

STANNIC  OXIDE,  Sn02,  or  dioxide,  occurs  native  in  tinstone  or 
cassiterite.  May  be  prepared  by  burning  metallic  tin  in  con- 
tact with  the  air.  May  also  be  prepared  by  igniting  either  of 
the  other  oxides  or  their  hydrates  in  contact  with  the  air.  It 
is  a  white  or  yellowish  powder,  assuming  when  heated  a  darker 
color.  Specific  gravity,  6.6  to  6.9. 

Stannic  acid,  Sn02.H20  =  H2Sn03. 
Metastannic  acid,  Sn50(0.5H20—  H,0Sn50,5. 

The  first  acid  is  capable  of  exchanging  the  whole  of  its 


58  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

hydrogen  for  a  metal,  and  forming  stannates,  whereas  the 
latter  exchanges  only  one-fifth  of  its  hydrogen  metals  forming 
metastannates. 

METALLIC  TIN. 

151.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  in  the  outer  flame  of  the  blow- 
pipe, it  is  converted  into  stannic  oxide  (Sn02)  ;  in  the  inner 
flame  it  remains  unchanged. 

Sn  +  0  =  Sn02. 

152.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  when  dilute  and  cold,  dissolves 
tin  but  slowly  ;  when  hot  and  concentrated  it  is  easily  dis- 
solved, forming   STANNOUS   CHLORIDE,    and   liberating   at   the 
same  time  hydrogen. 


The  presence  of  much  stannous  chloride  in  the  solution  re- 
tards the  action  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  to  some  extent. 

153.  NITRIC  ACID  when  concentrated  (Sp.  Gr.  1.5)  does  not 
act  on  tin,  the  metal  even  preserving  its  metallic  brilliancy  ; 
but  if  the  acid  be  diluted  it  attacks  the  metal  very  violently, 
converting  it,  when  heated,  entirely  into  METASTANNIC  ACID= 


According  to  Weber,  nitric  acid  of  Sp.  Gr.  1.2  converts  tin 
at  ordinary  temperatures  into  stannous  nitrate,  stannic  acid, 
and  metastannic  acid,  which  is  colored  yellow  by  admixed 
stannous  metastannate. 

With  nitric  acid  Sp.  Gr.  1.2  it  converts  tin  into  (if  the  liquid 
is  well  cooled)  metastannic  acid  [stannic  ?]  and  stannic  nitrate  ; 
by  dilution  and  heating  the  stannic  acid  is  converted  into  in- 

soluble METASTANNIC  ACID,  which   INDEED   IS   ALWAYS   PRODUCED 

under  influence  of  heat.     When  this  product  is  HEATED  to  RED- 
NESS it  is  converted  into  STANNIC  OXIDE. 

154.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  dilute,  dissolves  tin  slowly 
(with  the  aid  of  heat),  and  converts  it  into  stannous  sulphate, 
SnS04,  and  liberates  HYDROGEN  at  the  same  time. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  59 

When  the  acid  is  concentrated  and  hot  (with  plenty  of  tin) 
it  is  dissolved,  and  converted  into  STANNIC  SULPHATE,  and 
liberating  SULPHUROUS  OXIDE  at  the  same  time. 

Sn+4H2S04=Sn(S04)2 


STAN  NO  US   SALTS. 

The  stannous  salts  are  colorless  and  are  readily  decomposed 
by  heat.  The  soluble  salts  in  the  neutral  state  redden  litmus- 
paper.  The  stannous  salts,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  rapidly 
absorb  oxygen,  and  are  converted  into  salts  of  stannic  oxide. 
The  crystallized  stannous  chloride  only  dissolves  to  a  clear 
liquid  in  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

STANNOUS  CHLORIDE,  SnCl2. 

155.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces,  when  added  to  stan- 
nous chloride,  a  brown  precipitate  of  STANNOUS  SULPHIDE  (SnS). 

SnCl2  +  H2S=SnS  +  2HCl, 

The  precipitate  is  dissolved  by  ammonic  sulphide  (in  excess), 
which  first  converts  it  into  stannic  sulphide,  from  which  solu- 
tion it  may  be  precipitated  by  acids.  Nitric  acid  converts  it 
into  insoluble  metastannic  acid.  In  alkaline  solution,  the  tin 
is  only  partially  precipitated  by  hydrosulphuric  acid. 

156.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
hydrosulphuric  acid,  soluble  in  excess  if  the  ammonic  sulphide 
contains  an  excess  of  sulphur  (known  by  its  bright-yellow 
color). 

157.  POTASSIO    HYDRATE    precipitates    STANNOUS    HYDRATE 
(2SnO.H20)  as  a  white  compound  which  is  soluble  in  excess. 

2SnCl2-f4KHO=2SnO.H2 


158.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
potassic  hydrate  (2SnO.H20  +  Sn2H203). 


The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  excess  of  ammonic  hydrate. 


60  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

159.  SODIC  CARBONATE  produces  the   same  precipitate  as 
ammonic  hydrate. 


160.  MERCURIC  CHLORIDE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 
mercurous  chloride. 

2HgCl2  +  SnCl2  =  Hg2Cl2  +  onC!4. 

When  much  STANNOUS  CHLORIDE  is  present,  the  precipitate  is 
reduced  to  metal. 

Hg2Cl2  +  SnCl2  =  Hg2  +  SnCl4. 

This  is  a  very  delicate  reaction  for  salts  of  stannous  oxide. 
(See  §42.) 

161.  POTASSIC    FERRICYANIDE    and    FERRIC    CHLORIDE,    when 

added  to  a  solution  of  stannous  chloride  in  hydrochloric  acid, 
produces  a  precipitate  of  prussian  blue,  owing  to  the  reduction 
of  the  ferricyanide  to  ferrocyanide. 


f  K6(FeC6N6)2  +  Fe2Cl6  =  Fe2(FeC6N6)2 


(FeC6N6) 
2Fe2Cfy2  -f  2SnCl2  +  4HC1=  Fe4Cfy3  +  2SnCl4  +  H4Cfy. 

The  reaction  is  extremely  delicate,  but  it  can  be  held  to  be 
decisive  only  in  cases  where  no  other  reducing  agent  is  present. 

162.  METALLIC  ZINC  produces  a  gray  precipitate  of  TIN  (Sn), 
soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  after  the  removal  of  the  zinc. 

163.  BLOWPIPE.  —  If  solid  compounds  of  tin  be  fused  on 
charcoal  with  SODIC  CARBONATE  (and  POTASSIC  CYANIDE)  in  the 
reducing  or  inner  flame,  metallic  globules  of  tin,  which  are 
white  and  malleable,  are  produced. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  153,  16O,  163. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  61 

STANNIC   SALTS. 

The  salts  of  stannic  oxide  are  colorless;  they  are  decom- 
posed at  red  heat.  Anhydrous  stannic  chloride  is  a  volatile 
liquid,  strongly  fuming  in  the  air.  The  soluble  salts  of  stan- 
nic oxide  in  the  neutral  state  redden  litmus-paper. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

STANNIC  CHLORIDE,  SnCl4. 

164.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  in  neutral  or  acid 
solutions  a  YELLOW  PRECIPITATE  of  STANNIC  SULPHIDE  (SnS2). 


The  precipitate  dissolves  readily  in  potassic  hydrate,  am- 
monic  sulphide,  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  and  aqua- 
regia.  Soluble  with  difficulty  in  ammonic  hydrate,  and 
insoluble  in  ammonic  carbonate  and  dilute  acids.  If  the  pre- 
cipitate contains  arsenic  sulphide,  ammonic  carbonate  will 
dissolve  it.  Boiling  nitric  acid  converts  it  into  insoluble 
stannic  oxide,  but  is  dissolved  by  hot  hydrochloric  acid  to 
which  a  little  nitric  acid  has  been  added. 

165.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
hydrosulphuric  acid,  soluble  in  excess,  reprecipitated  by  acids 
unaltered. 

SnCl44-2NH4HS=SnS2  +  2NH4Cl  +  2HCl. 

166.  POTASSIC    HYDRATE    and   SODIC   HYDRATE  produce  a 
white  precipitate  of  STANNIC  ACID  (Sn02.H20  =  SnH203)  if  acid 
be  present,  soluble  in  excess  of  potassic  or  sodic  hydrate. 


167.  AMMONIC  and  SODIC  CARBONATE  produce  a  white  pre- 

cipitate of  an  ACID  STANNATE. 


62  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

168.  BARIC  or  CALCIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  precipitate  of 
STANNIC  ACID  (SnH203),  soluble  in  excess. 


169.  SODIC  SULPHATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of  stan- 
nic acid  hydrate,  insoluble  in  excess. 


17O.  BLOWPIPE.—  Same  as  §  163. 

PLATINUM. 

Symbol,  Pt—  Atomic  weight,  197.—  Atomic  volume,  9.12.—  Specific  heat,. 
0.0324.—  Specific  gravity,  2.15.—  Equivalence,  II  and  IV.—  Electric  conduc- 
tivity at  69.2°  F.,  10.53.  —  Order  of  malleability  commencing  with  gold, 
sixth  ;  of  ductility,  third  ;  of  heat-conducting  power,  second.  —  Tenacity,  494. 
—  Color,  white. 

PLATINUM    OXIDES. 

Platinum  forms  two  oxides,  PtnO  and  PtIV02,  both  of  which 
are  saleable  bases.  According  to  E.  Davy,  there  is  also  an 
oxide  of  intermediate  composition. 

PLATTNXHJS  OXIDE,  PtO,  is  obtained  as  hydrate  (PtO.H2O  or 
PtH202)  by  digesting  platinous  chloride  in  a  warm  solution  of 
potassic  hydrate,  and  washing  the  precipitate  formed. 

+  2KHO+Ad=PtO.H 


Part  of  the  hydrate  remains  dissolved  in  the  alkali,  and  may 
be  precipitated  by  neutralizing  the  liquid  with  sulphuric  acid. 
According  to  Berzelius,  it  may  be  converted  by  a  gentle  heat 
into  anhydrous  platinous  oxide  (Pt02). 

Dissolves  slowly  in  acids  forming  unstable  salts.  Boiling 
hydrochloric  acid  resolves  it  into  platinic  chloride  and  metal- 
lic platinum.  When  recently  precipitated,  it  dissolves  in 
potassic  hydrate  or  sodic  hydrate,  forming  PLATINITES,  which 
are  formed  when  metallic  platinum  is  treated  with  caustic 
alkalies. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  63 

PLATINIC  OXIDE,  Pt02.  —  Dobereiner  mixes  platinic  chloride 
with  an  excess  of  sodic  carbonate,  evaporates  to  dry  ness,  heats 
the  mixture  gently,  and  dissolves  out  the  chloride  and  excess 
of  sodic  carbonate  with  water.  There  then  remains  a  sodic 
platinate  containing  Na20.3Pt02.6H20,  from  which  nitric  acid 
removes  the  soda  without  dissolving  the  platinic  oxide.  When 
platinic  hydrate  (Pt02.2H20)  is  gently  heated,  it  is  converted 
into  anhydrous  Pt02,  which  is  a  black  powder.  Platinic  oxide 
unites  with  strong  bases,  forming  salts  called  PLATINATES 

PLATINUM   SALTS. 

The  platinic  salts  are  decomposed  at  a  red  heat.  The  solu- 
tions redden  litmus-paper.  Platinic  chloride,  if  heated,  is 
resolved  into  platinous  chloride,  then  into  metallic  platinum. 
The  color  of  most  of  the  salts,  yellow;  platinic  chloride,  a 
reddish-brown  ;  solution,  reddish-yellow. 

METALLIC    PLATINUM.      . 

171.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  does  not  fuse,  nor  does  its 
surface  become  tarnished. 

172.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  has  no  effect  on  platinum  when 
pure. 

173.  NITRIC  ACID  has  no  effect  on  platinum. 

174.  NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  dissolves  the  metal  slowly, 
forming  a  reddish-yellow  solution  of  PLATINIC  CHLORIDE  (PtCl4). 


175.  SULPHURIC  ACID  has  no  effect  on  metallic  platinum. 

176.  SILVER  alloyed  with  platinum,  the  alloy  becomes  sol- 
uble in  nitric  acid. 

PLATINUM    SALTS. 
Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

PLATINIC  CHLORIDE,  PtCl4. 

177.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  a  brownish-black  pre- 


64  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

cipitate  of  PLATINIC  SULPHIDE  (PtS2),  slowly  when  cool,  rapidly 
when  hot.  PtCl4+2H2S=PtS2+4HCL 

The  precipitate  is  soluble  with  difficulty  iff  ammonic  sul- 
phide ;  insoluble  in  dilute  acids,  but  soluble  to  some  extent  in 
concentrated  nitric  acid,  and  completely  dissolved  by  nitro- 
hydrochloric  acid. 

178.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  precipitates  platinic  sulphide  (PtS2), 
soluble  in  excess. 


Acids  reprecipitate  the  sulphide  unaltered. 

179.  AMMONIC  CHLORIDE  produces  a  yellow  crystalline  pre- 
cipitate of  ammonic  chloro-platinate  [(NH4Cl)2PtCl4—  (NH4)2 
PtCl6],  slightly  soluble  in  water,  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

+  2NH4Cl=(NH4)2PtCl6. 


If  the  solution  be  very  dilute,  the  precipitate  does  not  ap- 
pear for  some  hours. 

Ignite  the  precipitate,  and  metallic  platinum  is  left  in  a 
spongy  state. 

180.  STANNOUS  CHLORIDE  produces  a  deep  brown-red  color 
(if  acid  be  present),  due  to  the  formation  of  platinous  chloride 

(Ptcia). 

If  the  platinum  solution  be  very  dilute,  the  color  is  yellow, 
becoming  darker  on  standing. 

Yery  minute  quantities  of  platinum  may  be  detected  by  this 
test. 

181.  POTASSIC  IODIDE  first  colors  platinum  solutions  deep- 
red  ;  then,  on  standing,  or  on  the  application  of  heat,  a  brown 
precipitate  of  platinic  iodide  separates. 


182.  METALLIC  COPPER  or  ZINC  (or  formic  acid  on  heating) 
precipitates  PLATINUM  as  a  black  powder  (Pt),  soluble  in  aqua- 
regia,  but  insoluble  in  either  hydrochloric,  nitric,  or  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  not  removed  from  the  copper  by  heat.  (See  §  33,  96.) 

CHARACTERISTIC  EEACTIONS,  170,  172,  173,  175,  176,  182. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  65 


GOLD. 

Symbol,  Au.  —  Atomic  weight,  197.  —  Equivalence,  I  and  III.  —  Specific 
gravity,  19.26.—  Orange-yellow  metal.—  Fuses  at  1102°  C.  (2015.6°  F).—  Atomic 
volume,  10.04.  —  Specific  heat,  0.0548.  —  Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.,  77.96. 
—  Order  of  malleability,  first  ;  ductility,  first  ;  heat-conducting  power,  first.  — 
Tenacity,  273  (iron,  as  1000.) 


GOLD   OXIDES. 

Gold  forms  two  well-defined  oxides,  Au20,  Au203?  and  one 
of  uncertain  composition  (AuO  ?). 

AUKOUS  OXIDE,  Au20,  is  obtained  when  aurous  chloride  is 
decomposed  by  a  cold  potassic  hydrate  solution. 

2AuCl+2KHO=Au20  +  2KCl=H20. 

Aurous  oxide  is  obtained  as  a  green  powder,  partly  dis- 
solved by  the  precipitant,  and  soon  begins  to  decompose,  being 
resolved  into  auric  oxide  and  metallic  gold,  which  is  deposited 
on  the  sides  of  the  vessel  as  a  slirn  film,  appearing  green  by 
transmitted  light,  like  gold-leaf.  Potassic  hydrate  produces 
no  precipitate  from  auric  chloride  unless  some  organic  matter 
is  present  ;  if  tannic  acid  is  added,  the  precipitate  (deep-black) 
is  aurous  oxide  (Au20). 

AURIC  OXIDE,  Au203,  may  be  produced  by  adding  potassic 
hydrate  to  auric  chloride,  then  acetic  acid,  then  boiling  the 
mixture  ;  the  precipitate,  when  dried,  is  auric  oxide  (Au203). 


K203Au  +  3C2H402  =  H303Au  +  3KC2H302. 
2H303Au  +  A<?=Au203  +  3H20. 

The  oxide  may  also  be  prepared  by  digesting  zinc  oxide  in 
auric  chloride,  and  decomposing  the  resulting  zinc  compound 
with  nitric  acid.  —  (PELLETIER.) 

It  is  a  brown-black  powder  ;  when  exposed  to  sun-light  it  is 
very  quickly  reduced. 
5 


66  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

INTERMEDIATE  OXIDE,  AuO?  —  When  stannous  chloride  and 
organic  substances  act  on  solutions  of  gold,  this  oxide  (AuO) 
seems  to  be  produced.  Auric  chloride  stains  the  skin  purple, 
probably  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  this  oxide. 

METALLIC   GOLD. 

183.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  fuses  with  some  difficulty, 
its  surface  remains  bright,  and  no  incrustation  is  produced. 

184.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  when  pure,  does  not  act  on  gold. 

185.  NITRIC  ACID  does  not  act  on  gold. 

186.  NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  dissolves  the  metal  slowly 
when  cold,  more  rapidly  when  aided  by  heat,  producing  auric 
chloride,  and  liberating  nitrogen  dioxide. 


"The  gold  of  commerce,  and  also  that  wMcli  is  found  native,  con- 
tains more  or  less  silver  and  copper.  If  the  amount  of  silver  present 
be  small,  the  gold  is  readily  dissolved  in  aqua-regia,  while  the  silver 
remains  undissolved  as  chloride. 

"  If  the  proportion  of  silver  be  more  considerable,  the  gold  is  protected, 
and  its  solution  prevented,  by  the  argentic  chloride  formed. 

"If  the  silver  amount  to  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  whole,  it  may 
be  entirely  extracted  by  nitric  acid,  leaving  the  gold  undissolved."  —  (TuT- 
TLE  AND  CHANDLER). 

187.  SULPHURIC  ACID  does  not  attack  gold. 

GOLD    SALTS. 

The  oxygen  salts  are  few;  there  is  a  SODIO-AUROUS  HYPO- 
SULPHITE (sulpho-sulphate),  Au2  S2  03  .  3  Na2  S2  03  .  4  H2  0,  or 


04.2H20,or  Na3Au(S203)2.2H20  ;  the  solution  of  this 
salt  is  used  for  fixing  daguerreotype  pictures.  There  is  a 
baryto-aurous  hyposulphite  (sulpho-sulphate)  j  2  .  r  04,  or 

Ba3Au(S203)2  ;  sulphuric  acid  removes  all  the  barium  from  this 
last  salt,  and  forms  HYDRATED  AUROUS  HYPOSULPHITE  (SULPHO- 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  67 

SULPHATE).  The  haloid  salts  of  gold  are  yellow,  and  their 
solutions  continue  to  exhibit  this  color  up  to  a  high  degree  of 
dilution.  The  whole  of  them  are  readily  decomposed  on  igni- 
tion. Neutral  solution  of  auric  chloride  reddens  litmus-paper. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

AURIC  CHLORIDE,  AuCl3. 

188.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  precipitates  from  dilute  neutral 
or  acid  solutions  in  the  cold  AURIC  SULPHIDE  (Au2S3). 

2AuCl3  +  3H2S  =  Au2S3  +  6HCl. 

From  boiling  solutions  the  precipitate  is  AUROUS  SULPHIDE, 

Au2S. 

2AuCl3  +  3H2S  =  Au2S  +  6HC1  +  2S. 

AURIC  SULPHIDE  (Au2S3)  is  a  black  precipitate  ;  dissolves,  as 
also  does  AUROUS  SULPHIDE,  in  yellow  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE,  par- 
ticularly if  heated.  Acids  reprecipitate  it  from  this  solution. 
Auric  sulphide  and  aurous  sulphide  are  insoluble  in  hydro- 
chloric, nitric,  and  sulphuric  acid,  but  dissolves  in  nitrohydro- 
chloric  acid. 

189.  AMMONIC   SULPHIDE   produces  a  brownish-black  pre- 
cipitate of  AURIC  SULPHIDE  (Au2S3),  soluble  in  excess  if  precipi- 
tant is  rich  in  sulphur. 

S  =  Au2S3  +  3NH4Cl  +  3HCl. 


19O.  OXALIC  ACID  on  boiling  produces  even  in  slightly 
acid  solutions  a  precipitate  of  finely  divided  METALLIC  GOLD, 
appearing  first  as  a  purple  or  brown  powder,  which  afterwards 
separates  in  the  form  of  flakes.  If  these  flakes  are  rubbed, 
they  assume  a  metallic  appearance. 

2AuCl3  +  3H2C204  = 

"  If  free  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acid  are  present  this  precipitate  does  not 
occur,  but  quickly  makes  its  appearance  if  a  little  ammonic  hydrate  be 
added  to  the  boiling  solution.  If  but  a  small  quantity  of  gold  is  present, 
the  liquid  simply  assumes  a  purple  color."—  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 


68  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

191.  FERROUS  SULPHATE  produces  a  precipitate  of  METALLIC 
GOLD  from  its  solutions,  as  a  bluish-black  powder,  which  be- 
comes yellow  and  lustrous  when  rubbed.     (The  solution  must 
not  contain  an  excess  of  nitric  acid.) 

2AuCl3  +  6FeS04  =  2Au  +  Fe2Cl6  +  2Fe23S04. 

192.  ANTIMONIOUS   CHLORIDE   precipitates   METALLIC   GOLD 
from  acid  solutions  of  its  chloride,  by  means  of  acid  solution 
of  antimonious  chloride.  —  (LovEL.) 

3SbCl3  +  2AuCl3  =  3SbCl5  +  2Au. 

193.  SULPHUROUS   ACID,  or  sulphurous   oxide  gas,  when 
added  to  a  solution  of  gold,  precipitates  metallic  gold  com- 
pletely. 

2AuCl3  +  3H20  +  3H2S02  =  6HCl+3H2S04  +  2Au. 


194.  REACTION,  which  takes  place  during  the  process  of 
gilding. 


195.  STANNOUS  CHLORIDE  and  STANNIC  CHLORIDE,  when 
mixed  together,  produce  in  very  dilute  solutions  of  gold  a 
PURPLE  PRECIPITATE  known  as  "PURPLE  OF  CASSIUS." 

An  acid  solution  of  TIN  SESQUIOXIDE,  Sn203,  produces  the 
same  precipitate  ;  this  distinguishes  STANNIC  SESQUIOXIDE  from 
STANNIC  OXIDE  (SnO  +  Sn02  =  Sn203). 

^Berzelius  found  that  when  "  purple  of  cassius  "  was  ignited 
there  remained  a  mixture  of  stannic  oxide  and  metallic  gold  • 
he  proposed  to  represent  it  as  a  compound  of  the  PURPLE  GOLD 
DIOXIDE,  AuO,  combined  with  STANNIC  SESQUIOXIDE,  Sn203  ; 
hence,  AuO.Sn203.  A  glance  at  its  formula  shows  how  readily 
the  "purple  of  cassius,"  as  thus  represented,  may  pass  into 
gold  and  stannic  oxide  : 

n0 


2. 
"  Purple  of  cassius  "  is  considered  by  Figuier  to  consist  of 

a  HYDRATED  DOUBLE  STANNATE  of  GOLD  and  TIN  (SnnAu206.4:H20 

=Au2O.Sn02.SnO.Sn02.4H20). 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  69 

"A  very  delicate  method  of  making  this  reaction  is  as  follows  :  Ferric 
chloride  is  added  to  stannous  chloride,  until  a  permanent  yellow  color  is  pro- 
duced; the  solution  is  then  considerably  diluted.  The  gold  solution,  having 
been  likewise  very  much  diluted,  is  poured  into  a  beaker,  which  is  placed 
on  a  sheet  of  white  paper ;  a  glass  rod  is  dipped  into  the  tin-iron  solution, 
and  afterwards  into  the  gold  solution,  when,  if  even  a  trace  of  the  precious 
metal  is  present,  a  blue  or  purple  streak  will  be  observed  in  the  track  of  the 
glass  rod." — (ABEL  AND  BLOXAM.) 

The  reaction  will  indicate  by  a  faint  coloring  1  pt.  of  gold  in 
64,000  pts.  of  liquid. 

196.  POTASSIC  IODIDE  produces,  when  added  to  a  neutral 
solution  of  auric  chloride,  a  dark-green  precipitate  of  AURIC 
IODIDE,  Au 1 3. 

When  first  added  the  liquid  acquires  a  dark-green  color,  and 
yields  a  dark-green  precipitate  of  auric  iodide,  which  redis- 
solves  on  agitation ;  but  after  1  at.  of  the  auric  iodide  has 
been  added  to  4  at.  of  potassic  iodide,  a  further  addition  of 
the  gold  solution  decolorizes  the  liquid,  and  forms  a  permanent 
precipitate  of  auric  iodide,  because  the  auric  and  potassium 
iodide  at  first  produced  are  thereby  decomposed. 
AuCl34-4KI  =  KI.Aul3. 
ul3)  +  AuCl3=4Aul3-f3KCL 


CHARACTERISTIC   KEACTIONS,   183,  184,  185,   187,  188, 
189,  195. 

SCHEME  FOR  THE  SEPARATION  AND  DETECTION  OF  THE 
MEMBERS  OF  THE  SECOND  DIVISION  OF  GROUP  II. 
The  solution  to  be  examined  is  supposed  to  contain  a  salt 

Of  ARSENIC,  ANTIMONY,  TIN,  GOLD,  AND  PLATINUM. 
Add  HYDROCHLORIC    ACID NO    PRECIPITATE. 

Add  to  the  acidified  solution  hydrosulphuric  acid ;  there  is 
produced  a  precipitate  of 


Wash  the  precipitate  well,  then  add  hydrochloric  acid  and 
potassic  chlorate,  and  heat  gently  and  filter.  Eesidue  is  sul- 
phur. 


70 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


SOLUTION. 


PtCl4. 


Divide  the  solution  into  two  parts. 


FIRST 

PART.                                      SECOND  PART. 

Test  this  portion  for  As,  Sb,  and 

Test  this  portion  for  Au  and  Pt. 

Sn. 

Divide  into  halves. 

Concentrate  the  solution  ;  intro- 

1st Half.                    2d  Half. 

duce  some  of  it  into  a  flask  contain- 

Add hydrochloric 

Add  a  little  am- 

ing zinc,  water,  and  dilute  sulphuric 

acid,  then  ferrous 

monic       chloride, 

acid.     (§  133,  102.)     Then  pass  the 

sulphate  ;  boil  the 

evaporate    to    dry- 

gas  thus  generated  into  a  solution 

mixture  ;  there  is 

ness  over  a  water- 

of  argentic  nitrate  ;   a  precipitate 

precipitated  metal- 

bath, and  treat  with 

is  produced    consisting    of    silver 

lic    gold.      Filter, 

alcohol.         An    or- 

and   argentic    antimonide.      Ag-f 

wash,  dry  the  pre- 

ange-red     residue 

Ag3Sb.     Filter 

cipitate,  and   fuse 

(NH4Cl)2.PtCl4   in- 

PRECIPITATE. 

FILTRATE. 

on    charcoal   with 
borax  to  a  globule, 

dicates     platinum. 
(See  §  182.) 

Wash  precipi- 

Add argentic 

yellow.  (See  §191.) 

tate  well,  intro- 

nitrate neutral- 

duce   filter,  and 

ize  the  clear  solution  with  dilute  ammonic  hydrate  ;  a  pre- 

precipitate in  a 

cipitate  of  argentic  arsenite  is  produced.     Yellow  Ag4As3 

test-tube;     add 

05.     (See  §  99,  107.) 

t)£trtciric  SiCicl  <incl 

boil  for  a  few  minutes.     The  antimony  will  dissolve  ;  filter.     Residue,  Ag. 

Filtrate  will  contain  the  antimony  ;  add  hydrosulphuric  acid,  and  boil,  when 
a  flocculent  orange-red  precipitate  will  be  produced  :  antimonic  sulphide. 
(See  §  126.)  By  this  process  Hoffman  readily  detected  one  part  of  antimony 
in  the  presence  of  199  parts  of  arsenic. 

DETECTION  OF  TIN. — The  tin  is  precipitated  in  the  flask  by 
the  zinc,  as  a  gray  metallic  powder.  It  is  necessary  to  detach 
the  tin  from  the  zinc,  etc.,  by  agitation ;  then  transfer  the  tin 
to  another  vessel ;  wash  it ;  then  boil  in  hydrochloric  acid ;  filter 
if  necessary.  Add  mercuric  chloride ;  there  is  produced  a  pre- 
cipitate of  mercurous  chloride.  (See  §  160.) 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


71 


SCHEME   FOR  THE   SEPARATION    AND    DETECTION    OF 
THE    MEMBERS  OF   GROUP    II. 

The  solution  to  be  examined  is  supposed  to  contain  mer- 
curic oxide,  copper,  cadmium,  lead,  bismuth,  arsenic,  antimony, 
tin,  gold,  and  platinum. 

Add  hydrochloric  acid — NO  PRECIPITATE. 

Add  hydrosulphuric  acid,  and  pass  the  gas  through  the  solu- 
tion ;  there  is  precipitated 

Bi2S3  +  PbS-f  HgS  +  CdS  +  CuS-f  As2Sx  +  Sb2Sx-f  Au2S3  +  PtS2. 

Filter,  and  wash  the  precipitate  well;  then  add  YELLOW 
AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  ;  warm  gently  and  filter ;  wash. 


RESIDUE. 

Will  contain  the  PbS,  CuS,  BiS3— 
HgS— CdS.  Wash  well  to  remove 
chlorine.  (Test  with  argentic  ni- 
trate.) Boil  the  precipitate  with 
nitric  acid  ;  filter  •  wash. 


Residue. 
HgS  +  S. 


Solution. 

Contains  the  Pb, 
Cu,  Bi,  and  Cd. 
Treat  according 
to  scheme. 


SOLUTION. 

Will  contain  the  As,  Sb,  Sn,  Au,  and 
Pt.  Add  dilute  sulphuric  acid ;  there 
is  precipitated 

As2S3+Sb2S3+SnS3  + 


Filter  and  wash ;  dissolve  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  potassic  chlorate. 

AsCl3  +  SbCl3  +  SnCl4  4-  AuCl3  +  PtCl4. 
Treat  according  to  scheme. 


GROUP    III. 

Metals  NOT  PKECIPITATED  BY  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  nor  from 
their  acid  solutions  BY  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID,  but  PRECIPI- 

TATED BY  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  I 

Aluminum,  chromic  oxide  salts,  zinc,  iron,  cobalt,  nickel, 
manganese. 

ALUMINUM. 

Symbol,  Al.  (Latin,  alumen,  alum).  —  Atomic  weight,  27.4  —  Equivalence 
(A12)VI.—  Specific  gravity,  2.5  to  2.67.—  Specific  heat,  0.202.—  Electric  con- 
ductivity at  67.2°  F.,  23.76.—  Atomic  volume,  solid,  10.56.—  Malleable  white 
metal. 

ALUMINUM    OXIDE. 

Aluminum  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  one  oxide,  A1203. 

ALTJMINIC  OXIDE,  A1203,  may  be  prepared  by  burning  metal- 
lic aluminum  in  a  fine  state  of  division,  either  in  the  air  or  in 
oxygen. 


By  precipitating  a"  boiling  solution  of  common  alum 
(A13633S04+K2S04  =  A12S30I5.K2S04),  free  from  iron,  with 
ammonic  carbonate,  washing  the  precipitate  well  with  water, 
and  igniting  it  to  expel  the  combined  water.  —  (WATTS.) 

By  igniting  aluminic  sulphate  or  ammonia  alum.  In  the 
former  case  sulphuric  oxide  is  given  off;  in  the  latter,  that 
compound,  together  with  ammonic  sulphate;  an  aluminic 
oxide  remains. 

A123S0 
A12(NH4)24S04 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  73 

Artificially  prepared  ahiminic  oxide  is  white,  Sp.  Gr.  3. 87 
and  3.90. 

Aluminic  monohydrate,  A1203.H20  =  A12H204. 
Aluminic  dihydrate,  A1203.2H20  =  A12H405. 
Alumiuic  trihydrate,  A1203.3H20  =  A12H606. 
Al2Cl6  +  Na606Al2  +  6H20  =  2Al203.3H20  +  6NaCL 

Alurainic  hydrate  (trihydrate,  A1203.3H20  or  A12H606)  forms 
compounds  called  aluminates ;  the  hydrogen  can  be  replaced 
by  an  equivalent  quantity  of  various  metals. 

METALLIC   ALUMINUM. 

197.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  fuses,  and  becomes  tarnished 
on  the  surface,  owing  to   the  formation  of  aluminic   oxide 
(A1203). 

198.  HYDROCHLORIC   ACID,  either  dilute  or   concentrated, 
dissolves  it  readily,  even  at  low  temperatures,  forming  alu- 
minic chloride  (A12C16),  with  evolution  of  hydrogen. 

2A1  +  6HC1  =  A12C164-6H. 

199.  NITRIC  ACID,  either  dilute  or  concentrated,  does  not 
attack  aluminum,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  very  slowly 
even  at  the  boiling  heat. 

200.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  hot  and  dilute,  dissolves  it 
slowly,  evolving  hydrogen.     Neither  concentrated  or  dilute 
acid  attacks  aluminum  in  the  cold. 

201.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  dissolves  it  readily ;  caused  by  the 
rapid  oxidation  of  the  metal,  evolving  hydrogen,  and  forming 
POTASSIC  ALUMINATE,  which  remains  in  solution. 

A12  +  6KHO  =  (KO)6A12  +  6H. 
Al2  +  6NaHO  =  (NaO)6Al2  +  6H. 

ALUMINUM    SALTS. 

Some  of  the  aluminum  salts  are  soluble,  and  some  not ;  most 
of  them  are  colorless.  Aluminic  chloride  (A12C16)  is  a  yellow 
crystalline  volatile  solid. 


74:  THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

The  soluble  salts  have  a  sweetish,  astringent  taste,  redden 
litmus-paper,  and  lose  their  acid  upon  ignition.  The  insoluble 
salts  are  dissolved  by  hydrochloric  acid  with  the  exception  of 
certain  native  compounds. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

ALUM  [A12.3S04  +  K2S04  +  12H20  =  A12K2(S04)4.12H20]. 

2O2.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 
ALUMINIC  HYDEATE  (A1203.3H20  or  A12H606),  hydrosulphuric 
gas  being  evolved.  The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  excess,  but 
soluble  in  hydrochloric  and  other  acids. 


203.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  white,  gelatinous  pre- 
cipitate of  ALUMINIC  HYDEATE  (A12H606),  but  slightly  soluble 
in  excess.     Insoluble  if  amrnonic  chloride  be  present,  but  solu- 
ble in  hydrochloric  and  other  acids. 

A123S04.K2S04  +  6NH4HO  =  A12H606  +  K2S04  +  3(NH4)2S04. 

"  In  very  dilute  solutions  the  precipitate  can  hardly  be  distinguished  by 
the  eye.  On  boiling,  or  shaking,  however,  it  becomes  visible,  being  fre- 
quently carried  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid  by  entangled  air-bubbles."  — 

(TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

204.  AMMONIC  CAEBONATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 

ALUMINIC    HYDEATE  and    HYDEOAMMONIC  CAEBONATE  (A12H606  + 

NH4.H.C03),  the  ammonic  salt  not  being  removed  by  washing. 
—  (H.  EOSE.)     (Pogg.  Ann.  xli.  462.) 

205.  SODIC  CAEBONATE  produces  a  white  precipitate,  which 
after  being  washed  and  dried,  then  triturated  with  water,  again 
washed  aud  dried  over  sulphuric  acid,  consists  of  pure  aluminic 
hydrate  (A12H606).  —  (JAMES  BAEEET,  Ghem.  News,  i.  110.) 

206.  POTASSIC  HYDEATE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
ammonia,  SOLUBLE  in  EXCESS,  and  FOEMING  at  the  same  time 

POTASSIC    ALUMINATE. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  75 

If  the  solution  now  containing  POTASSIC  ALUMINATE  be  mixed 
with  aluminic  chloride,  the  aluminum  from  both  compounds 
will  be  precipitated  as  ALUMINIC  OXIDE  : 

A12K606  +  A12C16  =  2A1203  +  6KCL 

The  aluminum  may  be  precipitated  as  ALUMINIC  HYDRATE, 
by  first  acidulating  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  adding 
aminonic  hydrate. 

Al2K606  +  6HCl-f  NH4HO  =  A12H606  +  6KC1+NH4HO. 

Sodic  silicate,  Na2O.Si02,  precipitates  when  added  to  a  solu- 
tion of  potassic  aluminate,  ALUMINIC  SILICATE  (Al2Si309  or 
Al203.3Si02  ?). 

2O7.  SODIC  PHOSPHATE  (ortho),  when  added  to  a  solution 
of  alum,  produces  a  precipitate  which,  in  the  anhydrous  state, 
has  the  composition  (8A1203.9P205).  —  (Luowio.) 

But  when  the  alum  solution  is  carefully  added  to  the  sodic 
phosphate,  a  precipitate  of  the  neutral  salt  (A1203.P205.6H20 
or  AlinP04.3H20,  or  with  4  at.  or  4J  at.  of  H20)  is  produced. 


2Na2HP04  +  Al23S04.K2S04  +  6H20  =  A1203.P205.6H20 
+  2Na2S04  +  H2S04  +  K2S04. 

The  precipitate  varies  in  composition,  according  to  the 
proportions  of  the  acting  solution,  the  temperature  at  which 
they  are  mixed,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  precipitate  is 
washed. 

The  precipitates  are  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  re- 
precipitated  by  aminonic  hydrate.  Precipitates  are  soluble  in 
excess  of  potassic  hydrate,  and  reprecipitated  by  an  excess  of 
acetic  acid,  in  which  they  are  nearly  insoluble.  By  this  be- 
havior they  are  distinguished  from  aluminic  hydrate  (A12H606). 

If  sodic  silicate  (Na2O.Si02)  is  added  to  the  solution  of 
aluminic  phosphate  in  potassic  hydrate,  the  aluminum  is  pre- 
cipitated as  silicate  (Al203.3Si02  ?),  while  the  phosphoric  acid 
remains  in  solution. 


76  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

2Q8.  BLOWPIPE. — If  any  of  the  compounds  of  aluminum  be 
heated  on  charcoal,  then  moistened  with  a  few  drops  of  co- 
baltic  nitrate  (Co2N03)  solution,  and  again  strongly  ignited, 
an  infused  mass  of  DEEP  SKY-BLUE  COLOR  is  •  produced,  which 
consists  of  a  compound  of  the  two  oxides. 

By  candle-light  it  appears  violet.  Many  fusible  compounds, 
free  from  aluminic  compounds,  assume  the  same  color. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  2O3,  2O6. 

CHROMIUM  . 

Symbol,  Cr.  (Greek,  croma,  color). — Atomic  weight,  52.12. — Equivalence,. 
II,  IV,  VI. — Also  a  pseudo-triad  (Crs)VI. — Specific  gravity,  7.01. — Discovered 
by  Vauquelin  in  1797. — Atomic  volume,  7.00. 

CHROMIUM   OXIDES. 

Chromium  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  several  compounds : 
CrO  ;  Cr203  ;  Cr03  ;  Cr304,  which  is  intermediate  between  CrO 
and  Cr203  ;  and  several  oxides  intermediate  between  Cr203 
and  Cr03. 

CHROMOUS  OXIDE,  CrO. — This  compound  exists  in  some  speci- 
mens of  chromic  iron  and  in  pyrope.  It  is  precipitated  as 
HYDRATE  by  the  action  of  potassic  hydrate  on  a  solution  of 
chromous  chloride  (CrCl2).  Chromous  hydrate,  2CrO.H20  or 
Cr2H203,  is  very  unstable,  decomposing  water  at  ordinary 
temperatures ;  unless  protected  from  the  air  by  precipitating 
from  a  well-boiled  solution  of  potassic  hydrate,  it  is  converted 
as  soon  as  formed  into  CHROMOSO-CHROMIC  OXIDE,  with  evolution 
of  hydrogen.  Yellow  when  precipitated,  brown  when  dry. 
(Dry  in  atmosphere  of  hydrogen.)  When  ignited  it  gives  off 
hydrogen  forming  CHROMIC  OXIDE  (Cr203). 

2CrO.H20+  A<$  =  Cr203  +  2r7. 

The  anhydrous  chromous  oxide  (CrO)  has  not  as  yet  been 
obtained. 

CHROMOSO-CHROMIC  OXIDE,  Cr304  or  CrO.Cr203,  may  be  pre- 
pared by  precipitating  chromous  chloride  (CrCl2)  with  potassic 
hydrate,  without  excluding  the  air.  After  washing  in  water 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  77 

and  drying  in  the  air,  it  has  the  color  of  Spanish  tobacco.     It 
is  but  slightly  attacked  by  acids. 

CHROMIC  OXIDE,  Cr203.  —  This  oxide  exists  in  chrome-iron 
ore  and  in  ehrom-ochre.  It  may  be  prepared  by  igniting  mer- 
curous  chromate  (Hg2O04),  or  ammonic  di-chromate  [(NH4)2 

Cr207].  ^ 

4Hg2Cr04+A<S=2Cr203  +   8Hg+100. 


(NH4)2Cr207  +  A«*=Cr2 

By  passing  chlorochromic  anhydride  (Cr02Cl2)  through  a 
red-hot  porcelain  tube  : 

4Cr02Cl2  -}-  A  d=  2Cr203  +  8C1  +  20. 
By  passing  chlorine  gas  over  ignited  potassic  di-chromate  : 

K2Cr207+  Arf  +  2Cl  =  Cr203  +  2KCl-{-40. 

Chromic  oxide  obtained  by  any  of  these  processes  has  a 
dark-green  color. 

CHKOMIC  HYDEATES.  —  When  chromic  chloride  (Cr2Cl6)  is 
boiled  with  an  excess  of  potassic  hydrate,  a  precipitate  of 
(Cr203.4H20  or  Cr2H807)  (Ordway)  is  produced. 


By  treating  the  chloride  with  sufficient  potassic  hydrate  to 
redissolve  the  precipitate  first  formed,  and  neutralizing  the 
excess  of  alkali  with  hydrochloric  acid,  another  hydrate  is  ob- 
tained. A  third  hydrate  is  obtained  by  precipitating  a  solu- 
tion of  a  chromic  salt  with  excess  of  ammonic  hydrate.  The 
dried  precipitate  thus  obtained  is,  according  to  SchafFner, 
Cr203.6H20  or  H,2Cr209. 


When  chromic  salts  are  treated  with  an  excess  of  sodic 
hydrate,  and  heated,  a  gelatinous  hydrate  (Cr203.5H20  or 
H  ,oCr208)  of  fine  green  color  is  precipitated. 

20+Ac5=Cr203.5H2 
+  3H20. 


78  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

The  same  hydrate  is  obtained  by  pouring  a  chromic  salt  of 
either  modification  into  excess  of  the  boiling  alkali  solution. 

WHEN  A  SOLUTION  of  violet  chrom-alum  [K2Cr2(S04)4.12H20] 
is  poured  into  an  excess  of  ammonic  hydrate,  and  heated  not 
above  50°  C.,  a  grayish-green  pulverulent  precipitate  is  formed 
having  the  composition  (Cr203.7H20  or  H,4Cr20,0)  (Lefort). 
Dissolves  in  acids  with  violet  color. 


K2Cr2(S04)4  +  7 

+  K2S04. 

If  the  ammoniacal  solution  is  left  to  evaporate  in  the  air  or 
over  oil  of  vitriol,  a  hydrate  (Cr203.9H20  or  H,8Cr20,2)  is 
obtained.  When  dry,  it  forms  a  grayish-violet,  very  light 
powder;  when  dissolved  in  acids,  it  yields  red  salts.  —  (LE- 
FORT.) 

EMERALD-GREEN  of  Panetier  is  obtained  by  melting  in  a 
crucible  a  mixture  of  equivalent  quantities  of  boric-anhydride 
and  hydropotassic  chromate,  and  treating  the  fused  mass  with 
water,  when  MONO-METACHROMIC  HYDRATE  (Cr203.2H20=Cr2 
H405)  is  obtained.  By  washing  this  hydrate  and  triturating 
it,  a  brilliant  green  powder  is  obtained.  —  (GUIGNET.) 

CHROMIUM  PEROXIDE,  Cr203.Cr03=:Cr306  or  2{Cr02).  The 
precipitate  formed  by  ammonic  hydrate,  when  added  to  chromic 
sulphate  mixed  with  hydropotassic  chromate  is  (2Cr02.H20) 
(Yogel).  The  black  substance  obtained  by  heating  chromic 
anhydride  (trioxide)  to  200°C.  is,  according  to  Traube,  normal 
chromic  chromate,  Cr203.3Cr03  or  Cr50,2.  The  precipitate 
formed  by  mixing  the  solution  of  chrom-alum  and  neutral 
potassic  chromate,  when  dried  at  100°  C.  is  (3Cr403.2O203. 
9H20  =Cr,6Ol5.9H20  =  Cr,6H(8024).  Chromic  hydrate  di- 
gested with  excess  of  chromic  acid,  yields  a  dark-brown  solu- 
tion, which  dries  up  to  a  residue  containing  according  to  Mans 
(Cr203.4Cr03  =  3Cr205). 

CHROMIC  TRIOXIDE  (anhydride),  Cr03,  may  be  prepared  by 
pouring  1  vol.  of  potassic  di-chromate  in  a  tbin  stream  into 
1^  vol.  of  sulphuric  acid,  stirring  all  the  while.  As  the  liquid 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  79 

cools,  chromic  trioxide  crystallizes  from  it  in  crimson  needles 
often  an  inch  long. 

CHROMIC  TRIOXDDE  melts  at  190°  C.,  and  begins  to  DECOM- 
POSE at  250°  C.  ;  gives  off  OXYGEN,  leaving  a  brown  oxide 

CHROMIC    CHROMATE,  which,  when  FURTHER    HEATED,  is  REDUCED 

to  CHROMIC  OXIDE.  Chromic  trioxide  is  a  powerful  oxidizing 
agent,  being  quickly  reduced  to  chromic  oxide  by  sulphydric 
acid,  zinc,  arsenious  acid,  tartaric  acid,  sugar,  alcohol,  and 
various  other  organic  bodies,  especially  when  heated. 


2Cr03  +  12HCl  =  Cr2Cl6-f6H2 

Sulphurous  acid  added  to  a  solution  of  a  chromate  throws 
down  a  brown  precipitate,  consisting  of  (Cr203.Cr03  =  Cr306  = 
3O02),  which  is  CHROMIUM  PEROXIDE. 

PERCHROMIC  ACID,  H2Cr208,  or  (HCr04).  —  When  hydrogen 
peroxide  dissolved  in  water  is  mixed  with  a  solution  of  chromic 
acid,  the  liquid  assumes  a  deep  indigo-blue  color,  but  often 
loses  this  color  very  rapidly,  giving  off  oxygen  at  the  same 
time.  The  same  blue  color  is  obtained  by  adding  a  mixture 
of  aqueous  hydrogen  peroxide  and  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid  to  potassic  di-chrornate,  but  in  a  very  short  time  oxygen 
is  evolved,  and  chrom-alum  is  left  in  solution.  For  each  atom 
of  potassic  di-chromate  4  at.  oxygen  are  evolved,  provided  an 
excess  of  hydrogen  peroxide  be  present.  We  may  therefore 
suppose  that  PERCHROMIC  ACID,  H2Cr208,  is  first  formed  by  the 
union  of  HO  (H202)  with  Cr03,  and  afterwards  resolved  into 
oxygen  and  chromic  hydrate.  —  (BARRESWIL.) 

H2Cr208  =  H2Cr204  +  04. 

According  to  Storer,  the  coloring  power  of  perchromic  acid 
is  so  great,  that  when  a  solution  of  1  pt.  potassic  di-chromate 
in  30.000  to  40.000  pts.  water  is  shaken  up  with  ether  con- 
taining hydrogen  peroxide,  the  ether  acquires  a  perceptible 
blue  tint  ;  he  therefore  recommends  this  reaction  as  a  VERY 
DELICATE  TEST  for  CHROMIC  ACID.  ScJionbein  applies  it  as  a 
test  for  hydrogen  peroxide. 


80  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

METALLIC   CHROMIUM. 

209.  HEATED.  —  WOHLER'S  CHROMIUM,  when  heated  in  the 
air  to  redness,  acquires  yellow  and  blue  tarnish  like  steel,  and 
gradually  becomes  covered  with  a  film  of  green  oxide  ;  but 
the  oxidation  is  by  no  means  complete. 

PELIGOT'S  CHROMIUM  oxidizes  with  great  facility,  taking  fire 
in  the  air,  even  at  a  heat  below  redness,  and  being  converted 
into  green  chromic  oxide,  Cr203. 

DEVILLE  says  when  chromium  is  pure  it  is  even  less  fusible 
than  platinum. 

"  The  properties  of  chromium  differ  considerably,  according  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  prepared,  the  peculiarity  doubtless  depending  chiefly  on 
the  state  of  aggregation." 

210.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  dissolves  WOHLER'S  chromium, 
forming  blue  chromous  chloride  (CrCl2)  and  evolving  hydrogen. 


PELIGOT'S  chromium  also  dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid. 
FREMY'S  crystals  of  chromium  are  NOT  ATTACKED  by  ANY  ACID, 
not  even  by  NITROMURIATIC  ACID. 

21.1.  NITRIC  ACID   does   NOT   attack   WOHLER'S   chromium 
when  either  DILUTE  or  CONCENTRATED. 

PELIGOT'S  chromium  is  OXIDIZED  by  nitric  acid. 

2Cr+SHN03  =  Cr26N03  +  N^  +  4:H20. 

FREMY'S  chromium  is  NOT  ATTACKED. 

21.2.  SULPHURIC   ACID  when   dilute   and  heated  dissolves 
Wohler's  and  Peligot's  chromium,  forming  CHROMIC  SULPHATE  (?) 
(Cr23S04)  and  evolving  sulphurous  oxide. 


FREMY'S  CRYSTALS  are  NOT  ATTACKED. 

213.  NITROMURIATIC  ACID  dissolves  Wohler's  and  Peligot's 
chromium,  but  does  not  even  attack  FREMY'S  CRYSTALS  of 
chromium. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  81 

CHROMIUM    SALTS. 

The  chromic  salts  exhibit  two  principal  modifications,  the 
green  and  the  violet.  Most  of  the  salts  dissolve  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  retaining  their  color,  but  if  heated,  a  green  color 
is  produced.  Many  of  the  salts  are  soluble  in  water,  which 
salts  redden  litmus-paper.  Chromic  salts  containing  a  volatile 
acid  are  decomposed  upon  ignition.  Chromous  salts  are  but 
little  known,  but  CHROMOUS  CHLORIDE  (CrCl2j)  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  deoxidizing  agents  known. 


Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

CHBOM-ALTJM  or  POTASSIC  CHROMIC  SULPHATE  [Cr203.3S03. 

K2O.S03.12H20  =  Cr2K2(S04)4.12H20]. 
214.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 

HYDRATED   CHROMIC    OXIDE  (Cr203.9H20). 


K2S04+3H2S. 

The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  excess,  but  soluble  in  acids. 

215.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  in  solutions  of  the  green 
chromic  salts,  a  GRAYISH-GREEN  PRECIPITATE;  in  solutions  of 
the  violet  chromic  salts,  a  GRAYISH-BLUE  PRECIPITATE,  both  of 
which  yield  green  solutions  with  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  liquid  above  the  precipitate  has  a  reddish  color, 
and  contains  a  small  quantity  of  chromic  acid,  which  may  be 
precipitated  by  boiling  the  mixture.  The  precipitate  formed 
when  ammonic  hydrate  is  added  in  excess  is  (O203.6H20),  or 
H  1  2Cr209  when  dried.  —  (SCHAFFNER.) 


20=Cr2036H2 
K2S04. 

LEFORT  states  that  if  a  violet  solution  of  chrom-alum  be 
poured  into  excess  of  ammonic  hydrate,  and  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature not   exceeding   50°  C.,  a  grayish-green  pulverulent 
6 


82  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

precipitate  is  produced,  having  the  composition  (Cr203.7H2o 
=  H7Cr05),  dissolving  in  acids  to  a  violet  color. 

FREMY  states  that  when  ammonic  hydrate  is  added  to  a 
violet  chromic  salt,  there  is  a  precipitate  produced,  which, 
when  dried  in  vacuo,  has  the  composition  (Cr203.9H20). 


It  dissolves  in  acetic  acid,  ammonic  hydrate,  and  dilute 
potash-ley.  Its  properties  are  liable  to  considerable  altera- 
tions ;  thus,  by  the  action  of  boiling  water,  or  by  prolonged 
contact  with  cold  water,  by  the  action  of  concentrated  saline 
solutions,  by  desiccation  for  several  days  in  the  air  or  in  vacuo, 
and  trituration,  it  is  rendered  insoluble  in  liquids  in  which  it 
was  previously  soluble.  Fremy  is  of  the  opinion  that  these  alter- 
ations result  from  an  allotropic  modification  of  the  chromic 
oxide,  and  not  from  loss  of  water.  He  applies  the  term  CHROMIC 
OXIDE  to  the  oxide  which  has  been  rendered  insoluble  in  acetic 
acid,  potassic  hydrate,  and  ammonia  in  the  manner  just  men- 
tioned, and  METACHROMIC  OXIDE  to  that  oxide  which  is  soluble 
in  these  reagents,  and  is  precipitated  by  ammonic  hydrate  from 
a  violet  chromic  salt. 

216.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  precipitate  of  HYDRATED 
CHROMIC  OXIDE,  which  is  soluble  in  excess,  but  reprecipitated 
by  boiling,  as  (Cr203.5H20  =  CrH504,  according  to  Lefort). 


+  3H20. 

According  to  Fremy,  the  precipitate  is  (Cr203.9H20=2Cr 
H906). 


4)4  +  6NaHO  +  9H2O^Cr203.9H20-f-3Na2S04+K2S04 
+  3H20. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  83 

If  the  green  solution  of  chromic  oxide  in  potassic  hydrate 
be  boiled  with  plumbic  oxide  (or  plumbic  orthoplumbate),  the 
chromic  oxide  is  converted  into  CHROMIC  TRIOXIDE,  plumbic 
oxide  at  the  same  time  being  dissolved.  If  the  liquid  be  fil- 
tered and  then  acidulated  with  acetic  acid,  yellow  PLUMBIC 
CHKOMATE  (PbO04)  is  precipitated. 

"  When  the  chromic  oxide  is  mixed  with  much  ferric  oxide,  it  is  not  dis- 
solved by  excess  of  potassic  hydrate." — (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

217.  ZINC,  immersed  in  a  solution  of  chrom-alum  or  chromic 
chloride,  excluded  from  the  air,  gradually  reduces  the  chromic 
salt  to  a  chromous  salt,  the  liquid  after  a  few  hours  acquiring 
a  fine  blue  color,  and  hydrogen  being  evolved  by  decomposi- 
tion of  the  water.     If  the  zinc  be  left  in  the  solution  for  some 
time,  the  whole  of  the  metal  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a 
basic  chromous  salt,  and  its  place  taken  by  the  zinc. 

TIN  likewise,  at  a  boiling  heat,  reduces  the  chromic  salt  to  a 
chromous  salt,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent ;  and  on  leaving 
the  liquid  to  cool  after  the  action  has  ceased,  a  contrary  action 
takes  place,  the  chromous  chloride  decomposing  the  starmous 
chloride  previously  formed,  reducing  the  tin  to  the  metallic 
state,  and  being  itself  reconverted  into  chromic  chloride. 

Iron  does  not  reduce  chromic  salts  to  chromous,  but  simply 
precipitates  a  basic  chromic  sulphate  or  an  oxychloride  as  the 
case  may  be. 

218.  BLOWPIPE. — If  any  compound  of  chromium  be  fused 
on  charcoal  or  on  a  platinum-foil  with  a  little  potassic  nitrate 
and  sodic  carbonate,  a  YELLOW  MASS  of  POTASSIC  CHROMATE  is 
obtained.     If  this  be  dissolved  in  a  little  water,  an  excess  of 
acetic  acid  and  a  few  drops  of  plumbic  acetate  added,  a  YEL- 
LOW precipitate  of  PLUMBIC  CHKOMATE  (PbCr04)  is  obtained. 

219.  BORAX. — Compounds  of  chromium  are  dissolved  in 
borax,  both  in  the  oxidizing  and  reducing  flame,  to  clear  beads 
of  a  faint  yellowish-green  tint,  which,  upon  cooling,  changes 

tO  EMERALD-GREEN. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  215,  216,  218,  219. 


84  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


ZINC. 

Symbol,  Zn.  —  Atomic  weight,  65.  —  Equivalence,  II.  —  Density,  32.5.  — 
Molecular  weight,  65.  —  Molecular  volume,  2.  —  Hard  and  brittle  at  ordinary 
temperatures  and  at  200°  C.,  but  between  100°  C.  and  150°  C.  it  is  malleable 
and  ductile.  —  Melts  at  412°  C.  —  Boils  at  1040°  C.,  evolving  vapor  having  half 
the  nominal  density.  —  Atomic  volume,  13.76.  —  Specific  heat,  0.0935.  —  Specific 
gravity,  7.13.—  Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.,  is  29.02, 

ZINC   OXIDES. 

Only  one  well-defined  oxide  is  known  —  ZINCIC  OXIDE,  ZnO. 
Berzelius  regards  the  gray  film  which  forms  on  zinc  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air  as  the  SUBOXIDE  (Zn20).  T/tenard  also  states 
that  a  glutinous  peroxide  (Zn02)  is  produced  by  the  action  of 
hydric  peroxide  on  hydrated  zinc  oxide. 

ZINCIC  OXIDE,  ZnO,  occurs  native  contaminated  with  man- 
ganese oxide  as  zincite,  and  comprised  with  ferric  and  man- 
ganic oxides  as  Franklmite.  When  zinc  is  burnt  in  the  air, 
this  oxide  is  produced. 


Ordinary  oxide  is  a  white  amorphous  powder.  Specific 
gravity,  5.6.  When  heated,  assumes  a  yellow  color,  but  be- 
comes white  again  on  cooling. 

ZINC    SALTS. 

Zincic  salts  are  colorless  ;  part  of  them  are  soluble  in  water, 
and  the  rest  in  acids.  The  neutral  salts  which  are  soluble  in 
water  redden  litmus-paper,  and  are  readily  decomposed  by  heat, 
with  the  exception  of  zincic  sulphate,  which  can  bear  a  dull  red 
heat,  without  being  decomposed.  Zincic  chloride  is  volatile 
at  a  red  heat. 

METALLIC   ZINC. 

22O.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  fuses  and  burns  with  a 
white  flame,  forming  ZINCIC  OXIDE  (ZnO),  some  of  which  is  de- 
posited as  an  incrustation,  yellow  while  hot,  and  white  when 

cold-  =ZnO. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  85 

221.  HYDROCHLORIC    ACID   dissolves   zinc,   forming    ZINCIC 
CHLORIDE  (ZnCl2),  with  evolution  of  hydrogen. 


Zn  +  2HCl=ZnCl2 

If  a  strip  of  platinum  or  copper  be  put  into  the  solution,  a 
galvanic  current  is  formed,  and  the  zinc  dissolves  very  rapidly. 

222.  NITRIC  ACID  dissolves  it  readily,  forming  ZINCIC 
NITRATE  (Zn2N03).  If  the  acid  be  concentrated,  nitrogen  di- 
oxide (N202)  is  given  off;  if  very  dilute,  nitrogen  monoxide 
(N20)  is  given  off.  ; 


223.    SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  diluted,  readily  dissolves  it, 
forming  ZINCIC  SULPHATE  (ZnS04)  and  liberating  hydrogen. 


2S04=ZnS04 
Concentrated  acid  has  scarcely  any  action  in  the  cold. 

"All  acids  soluble  in  water,  even  the  organic  acids  (if  not  too  diluted), 
dissolve  zinc.  Hydrogen  is  liberated  in  every  case,  except  where  sulphurous 
acid  is  employed.  In  this  case  ZINCIC  HYPOSULPHITE  (ZnS204)  and  ZINCIC 
SULPHATE  (ZnSOJ  are  formed,  and  no  gas  liberated."  —  (TUTTLE  AND  CHAN- 
DLER.) 

224:.    POTASSIC   HYDRATE,  SODIC  HYDRATE,  and  even  AMMONIC 

HYDRATE,  when  boiled  with  zinc,  dissolve  it,  forming  POTASSIC 
ZINC  ATE  (K2Zn02),  SODIC  ZINCATE  (Na2Zn02),  and  AMMONIC  ZLNC- 
ATE  [(NH4)2Zn02],  with  evolution  of  hydrogen. 


=  Na2Zn024-2h. 
=  (NH4)202Zn  +  2H. 

225.  MANY  METALS  —  silver,  copper,  tin,  for  example  —  are 
precipitated  from  their  solutions  in  the  metallic  state  by  zinc, 
soluble  salts  of  zinc  being  formed  at  the  same  time.  (See 
METALLIC  SILVER  PRECIPITATE,  and  §  63-162.) 


86  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

ZINCIC   SALTS. 
Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions: 

ZINCIC  SULPHATE  (ZnS04). 

226.  HYDRO-SULPHURIC  ACID  produces  no  precipitate  in  a 
mineral  acid  solution  not  too  dilute  ;  but  on  neutral  solution 
it  precipitates  part  of  the  zinc.  From  acetic  acid  solutions  all 
of  the  zinc  may  be  precipitated  as  ZnS.H20. 

221.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 

HYDRATED   ZINCIC    SULPHIDE  (ZnS.H20).  -  (WACKENRODER.) 

ZnS04+NH4HS+H20=ZnS.H2 


The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  excess,  but  soluble  in  hydro- 
chloric, sulphuric,  and  nitric  acids,  and  in  a  very  large  excess 
of  acetic  acid.  —  (WACKENRODER.) 

228.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE,  in  neutral  or  but  slightly  acid 
solutions,  produces  a  white  gelatinous  precipitate  of  ZINCIO 
HYDRATE,  soluble  in  excess,  and  reprecipitated  by  boiling  ;  also 
soluble  in  acids  and  in  ammonic  salts. 

ZnS04  +  2NH4HO=ZnH202  +  (NH4)2S04. 

229.  POTASSIC   HYDRATE  and  SODIC  HYDRATE  produce  the 
same  precipitate  as  ammonic  hydrate. 

ZnS04  +  2KHO=ZnH202  +  K2S04. 

The  precipitate  is  soluble  in  excess,  and  from  its  sodic  or 
potassic  solution  it  may  be  precipitated  as  sulphide  by  hydro- 
sulphuric  acid. 

230.  AMMONIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  white  BASIC  ZINCIC 
CARBONATE.     If  the  solutions  are  very  dilute,  or  if  concen- 
trated and  boiling,  the  precipitate  has  the  composition  (Zn2 
C03.ZnHO  +  xH20  or  Zn3HC04.xH20).      Soluble  in   excess,  in 
ammonic  salts,  and  in  acids. 

231.  SODIC  CARBONATE,  same  precipitate  as  ammonic  car- 
bonate, but  not  soluble  in  excess,  but  soluble  in  ammonic  salts 
and  in  acids. 


CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


87 


Fresenius  gives  the  composition  of  the  precipitate  formed 
by  ammonic  and  sodic  carbonate  as  (3ZnH202  +  2Zn  +  C034- 
4H20  orZn5H6C2Ol2.4H20). 

232.  DISODIC  ORTHOPHOSPHATE  produces  a  white  precipi- 
tate of  DIZINCTC  ORTHOPHOSPHATE  (Zn2H2P208.2H20)  from  hot 
solutions. 


233.  POTASSIC  FERROCYANIDE  produces  a  precipitate  in  the 
form  of  a  white  powder  of  ZTNCIC  FERROCYANIDE  (Zn4Fe2Cy6 
+  3H20).     The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

234.  BLOWPIPE.  —  When    compounds   of   zinc   are  treated 
with  the  reducing  flame  on  charcoal,  an  incrustation  of  zinc 
oxide  is  formed  ;  yellow  while  hot,  white  when  cold.     If  this 
oxide  be  moistened  with  a  little  cobaltic  nitrate,  and  then 
heated,  an  infused  mass  having  a  green  color  is  produced. 

IRON, 

Symbol,  Fe.—  Atomic  weight,  56.—  Equivalence,  II,  IV,  VI.—  Also  a 
pseudo-triad  (Fe2)VI.  —  White  pig-iron,  Sp.  Gr.,  7.5  —  Gray  pig-iron,  Sp.  Gr., 
7.1.  —  Specific  gravity  of  iron,  7.844.  —  Atomic  volume,  7.10.  —  Specific  heat, 
0.112.—  Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.,  16.81. 

IRON    OXIDES. 

Iron  forms  two  oxides  corresponding  to  the  chlorides: 
Ferrous  oxide,  FeO,  and  ferric  oxide,  Fe203,  and  several  oxides 
of  intermediate  composition,  called  ferroso-ferric  oxides,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  compounds  of  the  two  just  mentioned  ; 
the  most  important  of  these  is  the  magnetic  oxide,  Fe304  = 
FeO.Fe203.  A  trioxide  may  be  supposed  to  exist  in  the  fer- 
rates (Fe03),  as  in  potassic  ferrate  (K2O.Fe03),  but  it  has  not 
as  yet  been  isolated. 

FERROUS  OXIDE,  FeO.  Found  in  nature  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonate (FeC03),  in  spathic  iron  ore,  and  in  chalybeate  waters. 
May  be  obtained,  according  to  Debray,  by  passing  a  mixture 
of  equal  volumes  of  carbonous  oxide  (CO)  and  carbonic  oxide 


88  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

(C02)  over  red-hot  ferric  oxide.  It  is  Dot  easily  prepared  in 
the  pure  state,  on  account  of  the  avidity  with  which  it  absorbs 
oxygen. 

FERROUS  HYDRATE  may  be  precipitated  from  a  solution  of 
pure  ferrous  salt,  perfectly  free  from  air,  with  potassic  hydrate, 
also  free  from  air,  in  a  vessel  filled  with  de-aerated  water. 
Precipitate  must  be  washed  by  decantation  with  recently 
boiled  water,  then  dried  and  preserved  in  an  atmosphere  free 
from  oxygen.  —  (SCHMIDT.) 

FERRIC  OXIDE,  Fe203,  occurs  in  nature  as  specular  iron 
ore,  as  martite,  and  as  red  hematite.  May  be  obtained  in 
small  crystals  by  decomposing  ferric  chloride  with  lime  at  a 
red  heat  (Daubre).  May  be  obtained  as  an  amorphous  powder 
by  igniting  ferrous  sulphate  with  -^-  pt.  of  saltpetre  and 
lixiviating  the  product;  by  dissolving  iron  in  nitric  acid, 
evaporating,  and  heating  the  resulting  nitrate  to  redness. 

The  amorphous  powder  is  nearly  black;  has  a  specific 
gravity  5.04  to  5.17.  —  (RosE.) 

Ferric  oxide  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  hydrogen 
gas  at  a  heat  below  redness,  and  at  a  red  heat  by  charcoal, 
carbonous  oxide,  and  ammonia  gas.  Ferric  oxide  dissolves  in 
acids  ;  best  solvent,  strong,  boiling  hydrochloric,  much  facili- 
tated by  presence  of  zinc  or  stannous  chloride;  the  oxide  then 
dissolves  as  ferrous  chloride. 


FERRIC  HYDRATES  are  most  easily  prepared  by  precipitating 
a  moderately  dilute  solution  of  ferric  chloride  with  excess  of 
arnmonic  hydrate  (with  a  smaller  quantity  a  basic  salt  would  be 
thrown  down)  ;  the  precipitate  formed  in  the  cold  (the  ferrum 
oxidaturn  fuscum  of  the  pharmacopoeias)  has  the  composition 
Fe203.2H20,  according  to  Gmelin  (Handbook,  v.  198)  and 
Lefort  (J.  p.  Chem.,  liv.  305);  Fe203.3H20,  according  to 
Wittstein  (Farm.  Centr.  1853,  p.  367);  or  2Fe203.3H20,  ac- 
cording to  Peau  de  Saint-Gilles  (Ann.  Ch.  Phys.  [3],  xlvi.  47)  ; 
the  proportion  of  water  doubtless  varying  according  to  the 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  89 

degree  of  dilution,  the  mode  of  precipitation,  and  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  hydrate  has  been  exposed  in  drying.  The 
hydrate  precipitated  from  hot  solutions  is  Fe203.2H20,  accord- 
ing to  Lefort. — (SCHAFFNER,  Ann.  Ch.  Pharm.,  li.  117.) 

Native  ferric  hydrates  are  also  of  various  composition. 
Gothite  is  Fe203.H20;  and  a  variety  of  bog  iron  (Quellery) 
from  Russia  consists,  according  to  Hermann  (J.  p.  Chem., 
xxvii.  53),  mainly  of  Fe203.3H20. 

If  the  ordinary  yellow  hydrate,  2Fe203.3H20  (precipitated 
from  chloride  by  ammonic  hydrate),  be  boiled  in  water  for  seven 
or  eight  hours,  it  changes  to  a  brick-red  (Fe203.H20),  and  is 
scarcely  acted  on  by  boiling  nitric  acid,  but  dissolves  slowly  in 
hydrochloric  acid.  This  hydrate  is  precipitated  when  ordinary 
hydrate  is  boiled  in  acetic  acid  (Peau  de  Saint-Gilles). 

FERROSO-FERRIC  OXIDES  and  HYDRATES.  Iron  oxides  inter- 
mediate between  ferrous  and  ferric  oxide  are  called  ferroso- 
ferric  oxides ;  they  may  be  regarded  as  compounds  of  the  two. 
The  principal  ones  are  the  scale  oxide  and  magnetic  oxide. 

SCALE  OXIDE,  Fe809  =  6FeO.Fe203.  If  iron  is  heated  to 
redness  in  the  air,  layers  of  scale  oxide  are  formed,  which  may 
be  separated.  The  inner  layer  is  a  blackish-gray,  porous, 
brittle  substance,  attracted  by  the  magnet,  and  has  the  compo- 
sition 6FeO.Fe203.  The  outer  layer  contains  a  larger  amount 
of  ferric  oxide,  32  to  37  per  cent,  and  on  the  very  surface, 
52.8  per  cent  (Mosander).  The  outer  layer  is  of  a  reddish 
iron-black  color,  dense,  brittle,  yields  a  black  powder,  and  is 
more  strongly  attracted  by  the  magnet  than  the  inner  oxide. 
•  MAGNETIC  OXIDE,  Fe304=FeO.Fe203,  occurs  native;  when 
pure  contains  nearly  72  per  cent  of  iron  (the  richest  ore).  It 
is  produced  when  iron  is  heated  to  redness  in  aqueous  vapor 
(Regnault,  Gay  Lussac).  When  ferrous  chloride  is  heated  to 
redness  with  excess  of  sodic  carbonate. — (LIEBIG  AND  WOHLER). 

FERROSO-FERRIC  HYDRATE  ; — there  are  two  hydrates: 

Dingy-green  hydrate.  Made  by  exposing  white  ferrous 
hydrate  to  the  air  for  a  short  time  ;  or  by  precipitating  a  mix- 
ture of  ferrous  salt  with  a  little  ferric  salt  by  ammonic  hydrate, 


90  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

a  dingy  green  hydrate  of  ferroso-ferric  hydrate  is  obtained, 
which  is  converted  by  the  air  into  rusty-brown  ferric  hydrate. 

Black  hydrate.  This  hydrate  (FeO.Fe203  +  xH20  nearly)  is 
precipitated  from  a  solution  of  magnetic  oxide  in  hydrochloric 
acid  by  ammonic  hydrate.  This  black  precipitate  is  magnetic 
in  the  liquid  if  a  magnet  dipped  in  it,  and  the  precipitate 
collects  around  it.  It  contains  about  7  per  cent  of  water,  and 
when  heated  in  a  retort,  leaves  anhydrous  ferroso-ferric  oxide  ; 
when  heated  in  the  air,  it  is  converted  into  ferric  oxide. 

FERRIC  TRIOXIDE,  Fe03,  is  not  known  in  the  free  state,  but 
is  supposed  to  exist  in  the  ferrates,  viz.  :  Potassic  ferrate, 
K2O.Fe03  =  K2Fe04. 

METALLIC    IRON. 

235.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  is  slowly  converted  into  the 
black  magnetic   oxide   (ferroso-ferric   oxide),   Fe304,  without 
fusing. 

236.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  dissolves  iron,  forming  a  pale- 
green  solution  of  FERROUS  CHLORIDE  with  evolution  of  hydrogen. 

Fe  +  2HCl=FeCl 


"A  small  residue,  consisting  of  carbon  and  silicon,  which  are  constant 
ingredients  of  iron,  remain  undissolved  in  the  form  of  a  black  powder."  — 

(TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

237.  NITRIC  ACID,  when  concentrated,  has  very  little  action 
on  iron  ;  but  if  diluted?  it  dissolves  the  metal  very  rapidly, 
forming  FERRIC  NITRATE  (Fe26N03)  and  liberating  nitrogen 
dioxide  (N202). 


"Iron,  which  has  been  plunged  into  strong  nitric  acid,  is  said  to  become 
passive,  and  is  unaffected  by  dilute  acid.  The  same  is  true  of  iron-wire, 
one  end  of  which  has  been  heated  to  redness."—  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

238.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  concentrated,  dissolves  iron, 
forming  FERROUS  SULPHATE  and  generating  sulphurous  oxide. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  91 

If  the  acid  used  be  dilute,  hydrogen  gas  is  generated. 
Fe+H2S04=:FeS04  +  2fT. 

239.  NITROMURIATIC   ACID  dissolves  iron,  forming  FERRIC 
CHLORIDE  (Fe2Cl6)  and  liberating  nitrogen  dioxide  (N202). 


FERROUS   SALTS. 

Most  of  the  ferrous  salts  are  soluble  and  crystallizable  ;  they 
are  white  in  the  anhydrous  state,  and  pale  greenish-blue  in  the 
hydrated  state.  The  solutions  have  a  sweetish  taste,  writh  an 
inky  after-taste;  they  quickly  absorb  oxygen,  and  are  con- 
verted into  basic  ferric  salts  —  thus:  2FeS04  +  0  =  Fe20.2S04 
(Fe203.2S03).  Ferrous  salts  containing  a  volatile  acid  give 
up  on  ignition,  leaving  a  residue  of  ferric  oxide.  The  soluble 
neutral  salts  redden  litmus-paper. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

FERROUS  SULPHATE  (FeS04). 

240.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID,  in  add  solution,  produces  no 
precipitate,  nor  in  neutral  solutions,  provided  the  iron  is  in 
combination  with  a  mineral  acid.     In  neutral  solutions,  where 
the  iron  is  combined  with  acids  such  as  carbonic,  oxalic,  tar- 
taric,  or  acetic,  part  of  the  iron  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a 
BLACK  HYDRATED  FERROUS  SULPHIDE.     The  precipitation  in  the 
last  three-mentioned  salts  going  on  only  until  a  moderate  quan- 
tity of  acid  is  set  free. 

241.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  a  black  precipitate  of 
FERROUS  SULPHIDE  (FeS)  (perhaps  containing  water)  : 

FeS04+  NH4HS=FeS+NH4HS04. 

Soluble  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  The  precipitate  oxid- 
izes rapidly  in  the  air,  being  first  converted  into  ferrous  sul- 
phate, then  into  yellow-brown  basic  ferric  sulphate. 

24:2.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  precipitates  part  of  the  iron   as 


92  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

FERROUS  HYDRATE  (FeH202),  the  rest  remains  dissolved  in  the 
liquid  : 

2  +  (NH4)2S04.FeS04. 


The  precipitate  at  first  is  nearly  white  ;  it  changes  to  a  dirty 
green  ferroso-ferric  hydrate  (Fe304.04H8)  by  absorbing  oxygen 
from  the  air,  then  to  a  reddish-brown  ferric  hydrate  (Fe03.3H20 
=  Fe2H604). 

"If  the  solution  contains  free  acid,  or  ammonic  salts,  ammonic  hydrate 
produces  no  precipitate,  a  soluble  double  animonic  salt  and  ferrous  salt  being- 
formed  [FeS04  +  (NH4)3SO4].  But  on  exposure  to  the  air,  oxygen  is  ab- 
sorbed, and  ferric  hydrate  gradually  separates."  —  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

243.  POTASSIO  HYDRATE  completely  precipitates  the  iron  as 
a  dirty  white  FERROUS  HYDRATE  : 


The  precipitate  changes  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  ammonic 
hydrate,  absorbing  oxygen  from  the  air. 

244.  FOTASSIC  FERROCYANIDE  produces  in  solutions  per- 
fectly free  from  ferric  salts  a  white  precipitate  of  POTASSIO- 

FERROUS-FERROCYANIDE  (K2Fe2Cy6)  \ 

FeS04  +  K4FeCy6  =  K2Fe2Cy6  +  K2S04. 

This  precipitate  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air,  which  acquires 
a  blue  color,  and  prussian  blue  [ferric  ferrocyanide,  Fe7Cy,8  = 
Fem4Feu3Cy,8  or  2(Fe2)VICy6.3FenCy2,  which,  in  combination 
with  18  molecules  of  water,  constitute  prussian  blue]  is  formed, 
probably  thus  : 


The  oxide  is  dissolved  by  the  free  acid  present.  Nitric  acid 
or  chlorine  converts  potassio-ferrous-ferrocyanide  immediately 
into  prussian  blue. 

245.  POTASSIC  FERRICYANIDE  produces  a  deep-blue  precipi- 
tate of  FERROUS  FERRICYANIDE,  Fen(Fe2)VICy  ,  2  +  xH20  : 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  93 

The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  but  is  de- 
composed by  potassic  hydrate.  This  precipitate  is  known 
under  the  name  of  "  Turnbull's  blue." 

"  This  is  an  extremely  delicate  test  for  ferrous  salts.  Before  adding  the 
ferricyanide,  the  solution  should  be  acidulated  with  acetic  acid;  or  if  it 
already  contains  free  mineral  acid,  potassic  or  sodic  acetate  should  be  added, 
in  order  to  replace  the  free  mineral  acid,  which  might  produce  a  blue  color 
by  decomposing  the  ferricyanide." — (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

246.  "  CITRIC  ACID,  in  the  cold,  imparts  a  brown  color  to 
solutions  of  ferrous  salts,  due  to  the  formation  of  a  compound 
of  the  ferrous  salt  with  nitrogen  dioxide  (N202)  ;  thus  (4FeS04. 
N202).     On  applying  heat  this  compound  is  destroyed — the 
ferrous  salt  changed  to  a  ferric  salt,  and  the  solution  assumes  a 
yellow  color." 

If  ferrous  sulphate  is  added  very  carefully  to  a  solution  con- 
taining a  nitrate  (with  the  same  volume  of  pure  sulphuric  acid 
as  the  nitrate),  so  that  the  fluids  do  not  mix,  the  stratum, 
where  the  two  fluids  are  in  contact,  shows  a  purple,  after- 
wards a  brown,  or,  in  cases  where  only  minute  quantities  of 
nitric  acid  are  present,  a  reddish  color.  If  the  fluids  are 
mixed,  a  clear  brownish-purple  liquid  is  obtained. 

247.  POTASSIC  and  SODIC  CARBONATE  and  AMMONIC  SESQUI- 
CARBONATE  precipitate  white  hydrated  ferrous  carbonate  in 
thick  white  flakes,  which,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  absorb  oxygen 
and  give  off  carbonic  oxide,  first  assuming  a  dirty  green  color, 
and  ultimately  changing  to  yellowish-brown  ferric  hydrate. 
The  precipitate  may  be  rendered  more  permanent  by  mixing 
it  with  a  little  sugar  when  moist.     Dissolved  by  aqueous  car- 
bonic acid.     Exists  in  chalybeate  waters. 

248.  POTASSIC  SULPHOCYANATE  neither  alters  the  color  of 
pure  ferrous  solutions,  nor  forms  any  precipitate  in  them. 

249.  TINCTURE  OF   GALLS   neither  colors  nor  precipitates 
ferrous  salts,  when  they  are  quite  free  from  ferric  oxide ;  but 
the  mixture  acquires  a  violet-black  color  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

250.  BLOWPIPE. — METALLIC    IRON    may   be    obtained    by 
fusing  ferrous  salts  on  charcoal  with  sodic  carbonate  and  po- 


94  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

tassic  cyanide.  If  the  fused  mass  is  washed  with  water  in  a 
mortar,  a  black  powder  is  obtained,  which  is  readily  attracted 
by  the  magnet. 

251.  BORAX  dissolves  ferrous  salts  in  the  outer  flame,  form- 
ing a  yellow  bead;  in  the  inner  flame  a  bottle-green  bead, 
owing  to  reduction. 

FERRIC   SALTS. 

Most  of  the  ferric  salts  in  solution  are  yellow  or  reddish- 
yellow.  The  soluble  neutral  salts  redden  litmus,  and  are 
decomposed  by  heat.  Ferric  salts  are  easily  reduced  to  fer- 
rous salts  by  various  deoxidizing  agents;  as  by  sulphydric 
acid,  sulphurous,  hyposulphurous,  and  phosphorous  acids  ; 
by  stannous  chloride  ;  by  metallic  iron,  and  even  by  silver  at 
the  boiling  heat. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

FERRIC  CHLORIDE  (Fe2Cl6). 

252.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  reduces  the  ferric  salts  to  the 
ferrous  and  deposits  sulphur  : 

Fe2Cl6  +  H2S=2FeCl2  +  2HC1  +  S. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  reaction  that  the  hydrogen  of  the 
hydrosulphuric  acid  acts  as  the  reducing  agent. 

"  When  in  combination  with  a  weak  organic  acid  (as  acetic  acid),  iron  is 
precipitated  as  sulphide  (FeS)  by  hydrosulphuric  acid."  —  (TuTTLE  AND 
CHANDLER.) 

253.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces,  in  strong  solutions  of 
ferric  salts,  a  black  precipitate  of  FERROUS  SULPHIDE  mixed 
with  sulphur. 


FeCl2+NH4HS=FeS+NH4Cl+HCL 

The  presence  of  ammonic  chloride  favors  the  precipitation. 
The  precipitate  is  easily  soluble  in  dilute  acids,  the  sulphur 
remaining  undissol/ved. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  95 

In  very  dilute  solutions  of  ferric  salts,  hydrosulphuric  acid 
only  produces  a  blackish-green  coloration,  which,  if  kept  for  a 
long  time,  deposits  ferrous  sulphide  in  black  flocks. 

254.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  added  in  excess  produces  a  pre- 
cipitate of  FEEBIC  HYDEATE,  Fe203.3H20  (Wittstein).  (See 
Ferric  Hydrates  under  Ferric  Oxide.) 

The  precipitate  is  of  a  brownish-red  color,  insoluble  in  am- 
monic  salts,  but  soluble  in  acids. 


255.  POTASSIC  HYDEATE  produces  the  same  precipitate  as 
ammonic  hydrate. 


256.  POTASSIC  FEEEOCYANIDE  produces  in  very  dilute  solu- 
tions a  deep  blue  precipitate  of  FEEEIC  FEBEOCYANIDE,  Fe7Cy,8 
or  2Fe2Cy6.3FeCy2: 

2Fe2Cl6  +  3K4FeCy6:=Fe7Cyl8  +  12KCl. 

(Fe7Cy,8  in  combination  with  18  molecules  of  water  constitute 
Prussian  blue.)  See  §  242.  The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in 
acid,  but  decomposed  by  potassic  hydrate,  with  separation  of 
ferric  hydrate  : 


"  Tliis  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  tests  for  iron.  Neutral  solutions 
should  be  acidulated  with  acetic  acid  before  applying  it.  As  strong  acids 
decompose  the  potassic  f  errocyanide,  giving  rise  to  a  blue  color,  it  is  best  to 
add  potassic  or  sodic  acetate  to  acid  solutions,  in  order  to  replace  the  free 
mineral  acid  by  acetic  acid  : 

HCl+KCaH3O2=iKCl  +  H.C2H302."—  (TUTTLE  AND  CHANDLER.) 

257.  POTASSIC   FEEEICYAOTDE  produces  no  precipitate  in 
absolutely  pure  ferric  salts,  but  changes  the  color  of  the  solu- 
tion to  a  GEEENISH-BEOWN.     If  there  is  the  least  trace  of  ferrous 
salt  present,  a  blue  precipitate  is  produced.     This  test  distin- 
guishes the  ferric  salts  from  the  ferrous  salts. 

258.  POTASSIC  SULPHOCYANATE  does  not  produce  a  precipi- 
tate, but  colors  the  solution  a  deep  blood-red;  the  color  is 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

very  distinct  in  very  dilute  solutions,  and  is  probably  the  most 
sensitive  test  for  ferric  salts.  The  color  is  due  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  soluble  ferric  sulphocyanide  ;  it  appears  in  solution 
not  too  acid;  if  much  free  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acid  is 
present,  the  hydrochloric  acid  nearly  destroys  it,  and  a  certain 
quantity  of  nitric  acid,  after  a  while,  completely  destroys  it. 
Ammonic  hydrate  instantly  decolorizes  the  red  solution,  and 
precipitates  ferric  hydrate  [^(O^Oe]-  Ammonic  sulphide 
produces  a  black  precipitate  of  FERRIC  SULPHIDE  (Fe2S3). 

"  A  similar  red  coloration  is  produced  by  potassic  sulphocyanate  in  solu- 
tion containing  molybdic  oxide  (Mo02)or  hyponitric  acid."  —  (FRESENIUS.) 

259.  BAEIC  CARBONATE,  when  shaken  up  with  a  ferric  solu- 
tion, produces  a  precipitate  of  FEEEIC  HYDEATE  : 


In  FEEEOUS  SALTS  (sulphate  excepted),  baric  carbonate  pro- 
duces no  precipitate. 

260.  SODIC    ACETATE.      "  When   a   solution   containing  a 
ferric  salt  is  rendered  nearly  neutral  by  sodic  carbonate,  and 
then  heated  to  boiling  with  addition  of  excess  of  sodic  acetate, 
all  the  iron  is  precipitated  as  a  (reddish)  brown  BASIC  sesqui- 
acetate,  and  may  be  completely  removed  from  the  solution  by 
filtering  hot  and  washing  with  boiling  water.     If  it  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  solution,  it  partially  redissolves  as  the  latter 
becomes  cold." 

261.  BLOWPIPE.—  See  §§  249,  250. 

COBALT. 

Symbol,  Co.  —  Atomic  weight,  60.  —  Equivalence,  II,  IV,  and  probably  VI. 
—Also  a  pseudo-triad  (Co2)VI.—  Specific  gravity,  8.71  (to  8.95).—  Malleable  at 
red  heat—  Atomic  volume,  6.94.—  Specific  heat,  0.1069.—  Electric  conduc- 
tivity at  32°  F.,  17,22. 

COBALT   OXIDES. 

Cobalt  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  several  oxides:  CoO, 
Co02,  Co203,  Co304,  Co607,  Co809. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  97 

COBALTOTJS  OXIDE,  CoO,  or  protoxide,  may  be  obtained  by 
igniting  cobaltous  hydrate,  Co(OH)2,  or  carbonate,  CoC03,  in 
close  vessels,  by  igniting  the  protochloride  (cobaltons  chloride) 
in  a  stream  of  aqueous  vapor.  —  (SCHWARZENBERG.) 


CoC03+  Arf= 


The  pure  cobaltous  oxide  is  a  light  greenish-gray  or  olive- 
green  non-magnetic  powder.  It  is  reduced  to  the  metallic 
state  at  a  red  heat  by  hydrogen,  charcoal,  carbonous  oxide  (CO), 
potassium,  and  sodium. 

COBALTOUS  HYDRATE,  CoO.H20  or  Co(HO)2,  is  produced  when 
a  cobaltous  salt  is  decomposed  by  potassic  hydrate  out  of  the 
air.  A  blue  basic  salt  is  first  produced,  which  changes  slowly 
(quickly  on  heating)  to  the  rose-colored  hydrate.  If  ignited 
out  of  the  air,  cobaltous  oxide  is  formed  as  above;  but  if 
ignited  in  the  air,  a  higher  oxide  is  formed.  Dissolves  readily 
in  acids,  and  forms  cobaltous  salts. 

COBALTIC  OXIDE,  Co203  (sesquioxide).  —  It  may  be  prepared 
by  passing  chlorine  through  water  in  which  cobaltous  hydrate 
is  suspended  ;  it  is  then  precipitated  as  cobaltic  hydrate  : 


The  water  is  decompose<;Hby  the  chlorine,  and  hydrochloric 
acid  is  produced,  while  the  oxygen  of  the  water  preoxidizes 
the  cobalt. 

When  this  black  hydrate  is  cautiously  heated  to  600°  C.  or 
700°  C.,  the  black  cobaltic  oxide  is  produced. 

Cobaltic  oxide  acts  as  a  weak  base. 

Cobaltic  acetate  is  the  most  permanent  cobaltic  salt. 

COBALTOSO-COBALTIC  OXIDES.  —  The  oxide  Co304  =  (CoO. 
Co203)  may  be  prepared  by  heating  to  redness  in  contact 
with  the  air,  cobaltous  nitrate,  oxalate,  or  cobaltic  hydrate 
(Hess,  Rammelsberg),  but  according  to  Beetz  and  Winkel- 
blech,  the  oxide  thus  obtained  is  Co607  or  Col20,4. 
7 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

If  the  residue  obtained  by  gently  igniting  the  oxalate  in 
contact  with  air,  is  digested  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid,  the 
oxide  Co304  remains  in  hard,  brittle,  grayish-black  micro- 
scopic octahedrons  having  a  metallic  lustre.  The  same 
crystalline  compound  is  obtained  by  igniting  dry  cobaltous 
chloride  alone,  or  mixed  with  ammonic  chloride,  in  dry  air 
or  oxygen  gas.  —  (SCHWARZEMBERG.) 

COBALTIO  ANHYDRIDE,  Co305  or  Co60,o,  is  obtained  in 
combination  with  potassic  oxide,  by  strongly  igniting  the 
oxide  Co304,  or  the  pure  cobaltous  oxide  or  carbonate,  with 
pure  potassic  hydrate.  A  crystalline  salt  is  formed  which 
contains,  when  dried  at  100°  C.,  K20.3Co305  +  3H20. 

COBALTIC  DIOXIDE,  Co02,  has  not  yet  been  obtained  in  a  free 
state,  but  may  be  supposed  to  exist  in  the  oxycobaltic  salts. 
Co02.N205.5NH3  +  H20=the  nitrate. 

METALLIC   COBALT. 

262.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  takes  fire,  and  is  converted 
into  cobaltoso-cobaltic  oxide  (Co304)  : 

3Co-f  04+  A<S=CoO.Co203  or  Co304. 

It  decomposes  aqueous  vapor  at  a  red  heat. 

263.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  dissolves  the  metal  slowly  in  the 
cold,  more  rapidly  when  heated,  forming  COBALTOUS  CHLORIDE 
(CoCl2)  and  liberating  hydrogen. 


264.  NITRIC  ACID  dissolves  the  metal  easily,  forming  cobal- 
tous nitrate  [Co(N03)2]  and  liberating  nitrogen  dioxide: 


265.  SULPHURIC  ACID,  when  dilute,  dissolves  the  metal, 
forming  COBALTOUS  SULPHATE  (CoS04),  with  evolution  of  hydro- 
gen gas  : 


If  heated  the  metal  dissolves  more  rapidly. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  99 

COBALTOUS   SALTS. 

Cobaltous  salts  in  solution  have  a  rose-red  color,  except  when 
they  are  very  concentrated  or  contain  a  free  acid,  in  which 
case  they  are  blue  ;  dilution  with  water  changes  the  Hue 
color  to  red.  The  neutral  solutions  faintly  redden  litmus- 
paper.  Cobaltous  sulphate  is  the  most  permanent,  all  others 
being  decomposed  at  a  red  heat;  the  sulphate  can  stand  a 
moderate  red  heat.  Cobaltic  oxide  dissolves  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  forming  cobaltous  chloride  and  liberating  chlorine. 


Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

COBALTIC  NITRATE,  Co(N03)2. 

266.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  no  precipitate  in  solu- 
tion containing  an  excess  of  any  strong  acid  ;  but  in  solutions 
of  the  acetate,  or  of  any  cobalt  salt  mixed  with  potassic  acetate, 
it  forms  a  black  precipitate  of  COBALTOUS  SULPHIDE  (CoS)  when 
cobaltous  acetate  is  used,  and  COBALTIC  SULPHIDE  (Co2S3)  when 
cobaltic  acetate  is  used. 

267.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  precipitates  completely  the  cobalt 
as  cobaltous  sulphide,  insoluble  in  excess: 

2  +  NH4HS=CoS+NH4N03 


Ammonic  chloride  greatly  favors  the  precipitation.  The 
precipitate  is  with  difficulty  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  but 
dissolves  in  nitromuriatic  acid  very  easily,  especially  when 
heated. 

268.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  precipitates  a  portion  of  the  co- 
balt as  a  BLUISH  BASIC  SALT  [5Co(OH)2.Co(N03)2],  a  portion 
remaining  in  solution  as  a  double  salt  [Co(N03)2.NH4N03] 

If  the  solution  contains  free  acid  or  ammonic  salts,  no  pre- 
cipitate is  produced.  The  precipitate  in  contact  with  the  air 
becomes  green.  If  more  ammonic  hydrate  be  added,  it  dis- 
solves and  forms  a  brownish-red  liquid,  which,  by  the  action 
of  the  air,  changes  to  red-brown,  and  then  consists  of  the  ele- 


100  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

ments  of  ammonic  hydrate  united  with  the  higher  oxides  of 
cobalt.  If  the  precipitation  is  performed  out  of  contact  with 
the  air,  cobaltous  hydrate  is  precipitated.  (See  COBALTOFS 
OXIDE.) 

269.  POTASSIO  HYDRATE  produces  a  blue  precipitate  of  a 
basic  salt  [5Co(OH)2.(CoN03)2],  which  is  insoluble  in  excess, 
assuming  a  green  or  dirty  bluish-green  color  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  from  formation   of  cobaltic  oxide;  but  if  protected 
from  the  air,  is  converted  into  cobaltous  hydrate  of  a  dingy  red 
color.     A  solution  of  cobaltous  and  cobaltic  chloride  produces 
a  precipitate  with  potassic  hydrate  which  does  not  change  to 
dingy  red  even  on  boiling,  but  merely  acquires  a  darker  color. 

270.  POTASSIC  CYANIDE  produces  a  red-brown  precipitate  of 
COBALTOCTS   CYANIDE    [Co(CN)2    or   CoCy2],   soluble  in   excess, 
forming  -a  double  cyanide  (4KCy.CoCy2),  from  which  acids  pre- 
cipitate cobaltous  cyanide  : 

2  +  2KCN=Co(CN)2 


Co(CN)2  +  KCN=CoKCy3  or  Co(CN)2.KCN. 


If  the  solution  containing  an  excess  of  potassic  cyanide  be 
boiled  with  free  hydrocyanic  acid  (generated  by  adding  a  few 
drops  of  hydrochloric  acid),  a  compound  potassio-cobaltic 
cyanide  is  formed  (K6C|2N12Co2=6KCy.Co2Cy6);  in  the  solu- 
tion of  which  acids  produce,  when  added,  NO  PRECIPITATE. 
(Important  distinction  from  nickel.) 


271.  POTASSIC  FERROCYANTDE  produces  a  pale-blue  precipi- 

tate Of  HYDRATED   COBALTOUS   FERROCYANIDE,  which,  when  Care- 

fully  treated,  gives  off  the  greater  part  of  its  water,  and 
assumes  a  dark-green  color.  Dissolves  in  ammonic  hydrate 
and  carbonate;  not  in  chloride.  Insoluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid. 

272.  POTASSIC    FERRIC  YANTDE   produces    a   purplish-brown 
(brown-red)  precipitate  of  COBALTOIJS  FERRIC  YANDDE,  insoluble 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  101 

in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  in  ammonic  hydrate.     This  precipi- 
tate may  be  produced  in  an  armnonic  solution  of  cobalt. 

273.  BAKIC   CARBONATE   in  the  cold  does  not  precipitate 
cobaltous    salts   (sulphate    excepted,   which  precipitates    the 
greater  part  of  the  cobalt  after  a  long  time).     No  precipitate 
is  found  when  cobaltous  chloride  is  used  in  the  cold,  but  when 
heated  to  boiling,  after  a  long  time  all  the  cobalt   is  pre- 
cipitated. 

274.  POTASSIC  NITRITE  when  gradually  added  to  cobaltous 
nitrate  acidified  with  nitric  or  acetic  acid,  precipitates  a  BEAU- 
TIFUL ORANGE-YELLOW  COMPOUND,  which  consists,  according  to 
A.  Stromeyer,  of  Co203.2N203.6KN02.2H20,  and  contains  13.6 
per  cent  of  metallic  cobalt  : 


By  this  reaction  cobalt  may  be  distinguished  from  nickel  ; 
dilute  solutions  should  be  concentrated  before  adding  the 
potassic  nitrite.  The  precipitate  is  only  slightly  soluble  in 
water;  insoluble  in  saline  solutions  and  in  alcohol.  When 
boiled  with  water  it  dissolves,  though  not  copiously,  to  a  red 
fluid,  from  which  alkalies  precipitate  cobaltous  hydrate. 

275.  POTASSIC  CARBONATE,  if  added  hot  to  a  hot  solution  of 
cobaltous  nitrate,  produces  a  precipitate  of  5Co0.2C02.4H20. 
When    added    at    the    ordinary    temperature,    a    precipitate 
4Co0.2C02.TH20  is  formed;  if  either  of  these  precipitates  be 
boiled,  they  assume  an  indigo  blue  color,  and  the  precipitate 
is  then  4CoO.C02.4H20,  becoming  green  during  washing  by 
absorption  of  oxygen. 

276.  BLOWPIPE.  —  When  compounds  of  cobalt  are  fused  on 
charcoal  with  a  little  sodic  carbonate  and  potassic  cyanide  in 
the  inner  flame,  and  the  fused  mass  pulverized  in  the  cold  in 
a  mortar,  on  treating  with  water,  METALLIC  COBALT  is  obtained 
as  a  gray  powder,  which  is  attracted  by  the  magnet. 

277.  BORAX.     Any  compound  of  cobalt  imparts  to  a  borax 
bead  in  either  flame  a  beautiful  SAPPHIRE  BLUE  COLOR. 

CHARACTERISTIC  KEACTIONS,  267,  272,  270,  274,  277. 


102  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NICKEL. 

Symbol,  Ni. — Atomic  weight,  58. — Equivalence,  II,  IV,  probably  VI. 

Also  a  pseudo-triad  (Ni2)VI.— Magnetic  ;  loses  this  property  at  250°  C.— 
Atomic  volume,  6.94.— Specific  heat,  0.1069.— Specific  gravity,  8.82.— 
Electric  conductivity  at  32°  F.,  17.22. 


NICKEL  OXIDES. 

Nickel  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  two  oxides,  NiO,  Ni203; 
the  first  is  a  salifiable  base,  the  other  is  not. 

NICKELOUS  OXIDE,  NiO  (protoxide),  may  be  obtained  by  cal- 
cining nickelous  nitrate,  hydrate,  or  carbonate  : 


It  may  be  freed  from  traces  of  peroxide^  which  it  sometimes 
contains,  by  heating  it  to  about  100°  C.  in  hydrogen  gas.  — 


It  is  a  dense  green  or  grayish-green  non-magnetic  powder, 
which  does  not  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air,  either  at  common 
or  high  temperatures.  It  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by 
hydrogen  at  a  red  heat,  and  by  charcoal  at  a  white  heat. 

ISTicKELOTis  HYDRATE,  Ni(OH)2,  is  obtained  as  an  apple-green 
precipitate,  by  treating  the  solution  of  a  nickelous  salt  with 
excess  of  potassic  or  sodic  hydrate  : 


Dissolves  easily  in  acids  ;  also  in  ammonic  hydrate,  form- 
ing a  violet  solution. 

A  crystalline  hydrate  [Ni(OH)2.H20]  has  been  found  as  an 
incrustation  on  chrom-iron  in  Texas,  Pennsylvania. 

NICKELIC  OXIDE,  Ni'203  (sesquioxide  and  peroxide).  This 
oxide  is  produced  by  calcining  the  nitrate  at  a  moderate  heat. 

2Ni(N03) 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  103 

It  is  a  black  powder  of  Sp.  Gr.  4.84  (Herapath),  which  is 
resolved  by  ignition  into  oxygen  and  nickelous  oxide. 

Ni203+A<*=2NiO  +  a 

NICKELIC  HYDRATE,  Ni203.3H20  or  Ni2(OH)6.  By  passing 
chlorine  gas  through  an  alkaline  solution  of  nickelous  hydrate, 
a  precipitate  of  nickelic  hydrate  is  produced.  If  a  nickelous 
salt  is  mixed  with  an  excess  of  caustic  alkali,  then  with  an 
alkaline  hypochlorite,  this  hydrate  is  produced.  It  is  dark- 
brown  when  suspended  in  water,  but  forms  a  black  shining 
mass  when  dry.  When  heated  it  readily  gives  off  water  and 
oxygen.  Dissolves  in  ammonic  hydrate  with  evolution  of 
nitrogen,  the  solution  containing  nickelous  hydrate. 

ANOTHER  HYDRATED  nickelic  oxide  of  a  dingy  light-green 
color  is  obtained  by  treating  the  nickelous  hydrate  with  hydro- 
gen peroxide. — (THENARD.) 

METALLIC    NICKEL 

278.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL  by  the  outer  flame,  it  is  rapidly 
oxidized  and  converted  into  NICKELOUS  OXIDE  (NiO)  without 
fusing  or  forming  an  incrustation. 

In  the  inner  flame  the  metal  is  not  changed. 

279.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  if  not  too  dilute,  dissolves  the 
metal  slowly  with  evolution  of  hydrogen,  forming  at  the  same 
time  NICKELOUS  CHLORIDE  (NiCl2). 


280.  NITRIC    ACID  rapidly   dissolves  the  metal,  forming 
NICKELOUS   NITRATE    [Ni(N03)2],  and  liberating  at  the  same 
time  nitrogen  dioxide  (N202). 

3Ni-h8HN03=3Ni( 

281.  SULPHURIC    ACID   dissolves   the  metal   slowly   when 
dilute   and   aided   by  heat,  forming  nickelous   sulphate  and 
liberating  at  the  same  time  hydrogen. 


104:  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

NICKELOUS   SALTS. 

The  solutions  of  the  nickelous  salts  have  a  light-green  color. 
The  salts  are  mostly  green  in  the  hydrated  state,  and  yellow  in 
the  anhydrous  state.  The  soluble  neutral  salts  slightly  redden 
litmus-paper,  and  are  decomposed  at  a  red  heat. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions : 

NICKELOUS  NITRATE  [Ni(N03)2]. 

282.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  no  precipitate  in  acid 
solutions,  and  only  partially  precipitates  the  nickel  from  neutral 
solutions  (such  as  sulphate  or  chloride) ;  but  if  nickelous  ace- 
tate or  any  nickelous  salt  be  mixed  with  sodic  or  potassic 
acetate,  the  metal  is  completely  precipitated  as  nickelous  sul- 
phide (NiS)  on  boiling,  unless  a  large  excess  of  acetic  acid  is 
present. 

283.  AMMONIC   SULPHIDE  produces   a  dark-brown  precipi- 
tate of  nickelous  sulphide  (NiS),  which  is  slightly  soluble  in 
excess,  forming  a  dark-brown  solution,  from  which  it  may  be 
completely  precipitated  by  boiling  : 

Ni(N03)2  +  NH4HS=NiS+NH4N03+HN03. 

Nickelous  sulphide  is  soluble  with  difficulty  in  hydrochloric 
acid  or  acetic  acid,  but  easily  soluble  in  nitric  or  nitrohydro- 
chloric  acids. 

284.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  no  precipitate  if  the  solu- 
tion contains  ammonic  chloride  or  free  acid.     If  the  solution 
is  neutral,  a  partial  precipitate  of  NICKELOUS  HYDRATE  [Ni(OH)2] 
is  produced,  a  portion  remaining  in  solution  as  a  double  salt 
with  the  ammonic  salt  [Ni(N03)2  +  2NH4N03].     The  precipi- 
tate formed  is  soluble  in  excess,  forming,  after  standing,  a  blue 
solution,  from  which  nickelous  hydrate  may  be  precipitated 
by  sufficient  potassic  hydrate. 

285.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  produces  an  apple-green  precipi- 
tate of  NICKELOUS  HYDRATE,  insoluble  in  excess,  soluble  in  am- 
monic salts. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  105 

286.  FOTASSIO    FERROCYANIDE   produces  a   greenish-  white 
precipitate   in  flocks,    consisting    of   nickelous    ferrocyanide 
(Ni2Fe2Cy6)  and  some  potassic  ferrocyanide,  soluble  in   am- 
monic  hydrate,   insoluble  in   amrnonic  salts   and   in  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

287.  POTASSIC  FERRICYANIDE  produces  a  yellowish-green  pre- 
cipitate of  nickelous  ferricyanide  (Ni2Fe2Cy,2),  insoluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid;  soluble  in  ammonic  hydrate.     No  precipi- 
tate is  produced  in  ammonic  solutions  of  nickel.     This  dis- 
tinguishes nickel  from  cobalt.     (See  §  276.) 

288.  POTASSIC  CYANIDE  produces  a  yellowish-green  precipi- 
tate of  nickelous  cyanide  [Ni(CN)2]  : 

Ni(N03)2  +  2KCN  =  Ni(CN)2  +  2KN03. 

Soluble  in  excess,  forming  a  brownish-yellow  solution  consist- 
ing of  a  double  cyanide  of  nickel  and  potassium  [Ni(CN)2  + 
2KCN]: 

=  2KCN.Ni(CN)2  = 


If  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid  be  added  to  the  solution,  the 
potassic  cyanide  is  decomposed,  and  nickelous  cyanide  is 
reprecipitated,  which  is  only  soluble  with  difficulty  in  these 
acids,  but  more  so  on  boiling.  (See  §  274.  ) 

Mercuric  oxide  decomposes  the  solution  of  the  double  salt 
[2KCN.Ni(CN)2],  precipitating  nickelous  hydrate  : 

HgO  +  2KCN.Ni(CN)2  +  H20=NiH202  +  2KCN.Hg(CN)2. 

Cobaltocyanide  is  not  decomposed  by  mercuric  oxide  or 
alkaline  hypochlorites. 

289.  POTASSIC  NITRITE  produces  no  precipitate,  even  in 
concentrated  solutions.  This  distinguishes  nickel  from  cobalt. 
(See  §  278.) 

-   29O.  BARIC  CARBONATE  produces  no  precipitate  (sulphate 
excepted). 

291.  BLOWPIPE.  —  All  nickel  salts,  when  fused  on  charcoal 
in  the  inner  flame  with  a  mixture  of  sodic  carbonate  and  potas- 
sic cyanide,  are  reduced  to  a  gray  metallic  powder,  which  is 


106  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

attracted  by  the  magnet.  The  fused  mass  is  best  washed  with 
water  in  a  mortar,  when  the  metallic  nickel  (Ni)  maybe  ob- 
tained. 

292.  BOEAX. — Compounds  of  nickel  give  in  the  outer  flame 
a  clear  bead  of  a  reddish-brown  color  while  hot,  and  a  pale  or 
dark  yellow  when  cold.  In  the  inner  flame  the  bead  changes 
to  gray  and  opaque,  owing  to  reduction  of  the  metal. 

CHARACTERISTIC  KEACTIONS,  283,  287,  288,  292. 

MANGANESE. 

Symbol,  Mn. — Atomic  weight,  55. — Equivalence,  II,  IV,  and  VI. — Also  a 
pseudo-triad,  (Mn2)VI.—  Specific  gravity,  8.02.— Specific  heat,  0.1217.— 
Atomic  volume,  7. 

MANGANESE    OXIDES. 

Manganese  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  four  different  defi- 
nite oxides : 

MANGANOTJS  OXIDE MnO. 

MANGANOSO-MANGANIC  OXIDE      .     .  Mn304. 

MANGANIC  OXIDE Mn203. 

MANGANESE  DIOXIDE Mn02. 

MANGANOUS  OXIDE,  MnO  (protoxide),  may  be  obtained  by 
igniting  manganous  hydrate,  carbonate,  or  oxalate,  at  a  mod- 
erate heat  in  a  closed  vessel,  or  better,  in  a  stream  of  hydrogen, 
and  allowing  the  product  to  cool  in  that  gas.  Liebig  and 
Wohler  recommend  mixing  equal  parts  of  fused  manganous 
chloride  and  so'dic  carbonate  with  a  small  quantity  of  sal 
ammoniac,  heating  the  mixture  until  it  fuses,  and  exhausting 
the  fused  mass  with  water  when  cold.  It  is  a  grayish-green 
powder,  which,  according  to  Despretz,  melts  at  the  heat  of  a 
forge-fire  to  a  fine  green-colored  mass. 

MANGANOUS  HYDE  ATE  is  obtained  by  precipitating  a  man- 
ganous salt  with  "  caustic  potash,"  as  a  white,  milky,  floccu- 
lent  precipitate,  which,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  turns  brown  by 
oxidation,  and  is  ultimately  converted  into  manganic  hydrate. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  107 

According  to  H.  Davy,  the  hydrate  contains  24  per  cent  of 
water. 

MANGANIC  OXIDE,  Mn203  (sesquioxide).  This  oxide  occurs 
native  as  braunite  (91-97  per  cent  Mn203).  May  be  obtained 
by  heating  manganic  hydrate  to  low  redness.  According  to 
Schneider,  all  the  lower  oxides  are  converted  into  sesquioxide 
by  strong  ignition  in  oxygen  gas.  Manganic  oxide,  when 
strongly  ignited  in  the  air  or  in  a  closed  vessel,  gives  off 
oxygen,  and  leaves  manganoso-manganic  oxide.  Hot  strong 
sulphuric  acid  reduces  it  to  manganous  oxide,  and  dissolves  it 
with  evolution  of  oxygen  gas. 

MANGANIC  HYDRATE,  Mn2H204.  Found  native  as  manga- 
nite  or  gray  manganese  ore.  It  is  found  when  manganous 
hydrate  is  exposed  to  the  air.  Artificially  prepared,  it  is  a 
dark-brown  powder,  light,  and  capable  of  soiling  very  strongly. 
When  boiled  with  concentrated  nitric  acid,  it  is  resolved  into 
manganous  oxide,  which  dissolves,  and  a  hydrated  peroxide  as 
a  residue  (Berthier).  Dissolves  in  cold  hydrochloric  acid, 
forming  manganic  chloride. 

MANGANOSO-MANGANIC  OXIDE,  Mn304  =  MnO.Mn203  (red 
oxide  of  manganese),  occurs  native  as  hausmannite  (98-99.44 
per  cent  M  n304).  When  manganous  oxide,  nitrate  or  carbonate 
is  strongly  ignited  in  contact  wtih  air,  or  when  either  of  the 
other  oxides  is  subjected  to  very  strong  ignition.  This  oxide 
is  very  easily  prepared.  When  heated  to  whiteness  with  char- 
coal, it  is  reduced  to  metallic  manganese.  Hot  sulphuric  acid 
dissolves  it,  forming  manganous  sulphate  and  liberating  oxygen  : 


Hot  hydrochloric  acid  dissolves  it  with  liberation  of  chlorine. 


MANGANESE  DIOXIDE  (Mn02)  (peroxide),  occurs  native  as 
pyrolusite  or  polianite.  When  manganoso-manganic  oxide  or 
manganic  oxide  is  boiled  with  strong  nitric  acid,  manganese  di- 
oxide is  produced,  or  when  manganous  carbonate  is  heated  in  an 
open  vessel  to  260°  C.  ;  and  any  portion  of  carbonate  that  may 


108  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

then  remain  undecomposed,  may  be  removed  by  cold  and  very 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  ;  whereupon,  according  to  Forchham- 
mer,  pure  manganese  dioxide  remains  behind.  When  heated 
alone,  manganese  dioxide  is  converted  into  manganoso-man- 
ganic  oxide.  When  drenched  with  strong  sulphuric  acid,  it  gives 
up  one-fourth  of  its  oxygen,  and  yields  a  dark-red  solution  of 
MANGANIC  SULPHATE  (Mn23S04).  With  cold  hydrochloric  acid, 
it  forms  MANGANIC  CHLORIDE  (Mn2Cl6)  ;  on  heating,  manganous 
chloride  (MnCl2)  is  obtained  with  evolution  of  chlorine. 

HYDRATES  OF  MANGANESE  DIOXIDE.  In  the  spontaneous  de- 
composition of  manganates  or  permanganates  dissolved  in 
water  or  in  dilute  acid,  a  black-brown  hydrated  dioxide  is  pre- 
cipitated, which  cakes  together  to  a  BLACK  COHERENT  MASS 
CONTAINING  Mn02.H20  (Mitscherlich).  The  same  hydrate  is 
formed  when  manganous  carbonate  suspended  in  water  is 
treated  with  chlorine,  and  the  black-brown  residue  is  woll 
washed  with  dilute  acid  (Berthier).  A  HYDRATE  containing 
2Mn02.H20  is  obtained  when  a  solution  of  a  manganous  salt 
is  precipitated  by  a  mixture  of  potassic  hydrate  and  potassic 
hypochlorite. — (WINKELBLECH). 

THE  HYDRATE  3MnO.H20  is  deposited  on  evaporating  a 
solution  of  manganous  bromate  (Eammelsberg).  THE  HYDRATE 
4Mn02.H20  is  obtained  by  treating  manganoso-manganic  hy- 
drate with  strong  nitric  acid  (Berthier).  (See  Gmelin's  JJand- 
book,  iii.  206.) 

MANGANESE  OXIDES,  intermediate  in  composition  between 
the  sesquioxide  and  dioxide  are  mostly  mixtures  of  different 
oxides  (which  cannot  be  regarded  as  definite  chemical  com- 
pounds or  distinct  mineral  species),  although  there  are  one  or 
two  of  definite  composition.  Psilomelane,  Yarvacite,  Wad, 
Earthy  Cobalt,  Cupreous  Manganese,  Wad  or  Bog  Manga- 
nese, Groroilite,  Pelokonite. 

METALLIC    MANGANESE. 

293.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  it  rapidly  oxidizes,  but  does 
not  melt.  Manganese  oxidizes  very  easily  when  it  is  exposed 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  109 

to  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  must  therefore  be 
kept  under  rock-oil,  or  in  sealed  tubes.  Decomposes  water  at 
ordinary  temperature,  being  itself  oxidized. 

294.  HYDROCHLORIC    ACID    dissolves    the    metal,    forming 
MANGANOUS  CHLORIDE  (MnCl2)  and  liberating  at  the  same  time 

hydrogen.  ~*~ 

Mn  +  2HCl=MnCl2 


295.  NITRIC  ACID,  when  dilute,  dissolves  the  metal. 

296.  SULPHURIC   ACID,  when  dilute,  dissolves  the  metal, 
liberating    hydrogen    and     forming     MANGANOUS     SULPHATE, 


MnS04 


The  metal  prepared  by  Brunner's  process,  when  immersed 
in  strong  sulphuric  acid,  liberates  but  a  small  quantity  of 
hydrogen  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  dissolves  on  boiling 
with  evolution  of  sulphurous  oxide.  In  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
it  dissolves  readily ;  also  in  nitric  acid,  in  very  dilute  hydro- 
chloric, and  in  acetic  acid. 

MANGANOUS   SALTS. 

Manganous  salts  have  a  pale  rose  tint,  which  is  not  de- 
stroyed by  sulphurous  or  hydrochloric  acid,  and  is  therefore 
characteristic.  Some  of  the  salts  are  soluble  in  water,  the  rest 
in  acids.  The  ones  soluble  in  water  are  decomposed  at  a  red 
heat  (sulphate  excepted).  The  solutions  do  not  alter  vege- 
table colors. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions: 

MANGANOUS  SULPHATE  (MnS04). 

297.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  produces  no  precipitate  in  acid 
solutions,  but  from  a  neutral  solution  of  manganous  acetate  a 
flesh-colored  precipitate  is  formed  after  a  while;  but  not  if  the 
solution  contains  free  acetic  acid. 

298.  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produces  in  neutral   solutions  a 


110  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

flesh-colored  precipitate  of   hydrated    MANGANOUS    SULPHIDE 
(MnS.xH20): 


The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  excess,  but  dissolves  in  acids, 
even  in  acetic  acid.  The  precipitate,  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
oxidizes,  and  its  surface  turns  brown.  The  separation  of  the 
precipitate  is  much  facilitated  by  the  presence  of  ammonic 
chloride. 

299.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  in  neutral  solution  a. 
white  precipitate  of  MANGANOUS  HYDRATE  [Mn(OH)2]  : 

+  (NH4)2S04. 


In  solutions  containing  free  acid  or  ammonic  salts  it  pro- 
duces no  precipitate;  but  if  sufficient  ammonic  hydrate  is 
added,  and  the  solution  exposed  to  the  air,  all  the  manganese 
is  deposited  as  brown  MANGANIC  HYDRATE  (Mn203.H20). 
Manganous  hydrate,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  oxidizes,  and  is 
converted  into  manganic  hydrate. 

300.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 

MANGANOUS    HYDRATE  I 

MnS04  +  2KHO  =  Mn(OH)2  +  K2S04. 

The  precipitate  soon  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air  and  turns 
brown  ;  if  collected  on  a  filter  and  washed,  it  ultimately 
changes  to  MANGANIC  HYDRATE. 

301.  POTASSIC  or  SODIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  white  pre- 
cipitate, which,  after  washing  with  boiling  water  and  dried  in 
vacuo  of  sulphuric  acid,  has  the  composition  2MnC03.H20  : 


.  If  atomic  quantities  of  manganous  chloride  and  sodic  car- 
bonate are  mixed  together,  the  precipitate  will  contain  5Mn 
C03.2Mn(OH)2. 

3O2.  POTASSIC  FERROCYANIDE  produces  a  white  precipitate, 
soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid.     When  the  manganous  salt  is 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  Ill 

poured  into  the  potassic  ferrocyanide,  the  precipitate  contains 
both  manganese  and  potassium.  Both  precipitates  are  tinged 
with  red. 

303.  POTASSIC  FERRICYANIDE  produces  a  brown  precipitate 
which  is  insoluble  in  acids. 

304.  PLUMBIC  DIOXIDE  (or  red  lead),  when  saturated  with  a 
fluid  containing  manganous  oxide  (free  from  chlorine)  and  a 
little  nitric  acid  (free  from  chlorine),  and  the  mixture  boiled 
and  allowed  to  settle,  the  fluid  is  of  a  purple-red  color  from 
the  formation  of  permanganic  acid  (Crum)  or  manganic  ni- 
trate (Kose). 

The  color  is  very  perceptible  after  the  excess  of  lead-oxide 
has  settled,  and  is  the  most  delicate  test  for  manganese  in  the 
wet  way. 

305.  BARIC  CARBONATE  produces  no  precipitate  except  with 
the  sulphate. 

306.  FERROUS  SALT.     To  determine  the  amount  of  ferrous 
salt  in  a  solution,  by  adding  potassic  permanganate  and  sul- 
phuric (or  hydrochloric)  acid,  the  reaction  is  as  follows  : 


+  8H20. 


307.  MANGANESE  SALTS   of  any  oxide,  when  boiled  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  exhibit  the  reactions  of  manganous  salts. 

308.  MANGANATES.     Potassic    manganate,   when   boiled 
with  water,  decomposes  and  precipitates  Mn02.H20  : 


This  change  is  retarded  by  excess  of  alkali.  Nitric,  sul- 
phuric, or  hydrochloric  acid,  effects  the  change  at  once;  with 
hydrochloric  acid  the  red  solution  gradually  becomes  broWn, 
and  when  heated,  colorless,  owing  to  .the  formation  of  mangan- 
ous chloride.  The  solution  is  also  decolorized  by  sulphurous 
and  suiphydric  acid  and  other  reducing  agents. 


112  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

309.  PERMANGANATES  form  a  deep  purple-red  colored  solu- 
tion.    They  are  very  easily  reduced  by  organic  compounds, 
and  by  all  reducing  reagents,  such  as  hydrochloric,  sulphur- 
ous, arsenious,  nitrous,  and  sulphydric  acids,  and  ferrous  salts 
(see  §  310),  stannous  salts,  etc. ;   the  solution  first  becoming 
green  and  ultimately  colorless. 

310.  MANGANIC  SALTS  in  solution  are  red,  and  yield  with  po- 
tassic  hydrate,  in  the  absence  of  ammonic  chloride,  a  black  pre- 
cipitate of  manganous  hydrate.     They  are  easily  reduced  to 
manganous  salts  by  merely  heating,  also  by  hydrochloric,  sul- 
phurous, or  nitrous  acid  or  any  organic  compound ;  the  liquor 
then  becomes  colorless.     Ammonic  sulphide  first  reduces  them 
to  manganous  salts,  then  precipitates  the  flesh-colored  sulphide. 

311.  BLOWPIPE. — If  a  manganese  compound  be  fused  on 
charcoal  or  on  a  piece  of  platinum-foil  in  the  outer  flame  of 
tho  blowpipe  with  sodic  carbonate,  there  is  produced  sodic 
manganate  (Na2Mn04),  which  is  green  while  hot,  and  bluish- 
green  when  cold. 

Potassic  nitrate  may  be  added  with  advantage.  The  mix- 
ture should  be  heated  on  the  under-side  of  the  platinum-foil 
in  the  hottest  part  of  the  flame. 

312.  BORAX.     Any  compound  of  manganese,  when  heated 
with  borax  or  phosphorous  salt,  in  the  outer  blowpipe  flame, 
forms  an  amethyst-colored  bead   containing  manganoso-man- 
ganic  oxide,  which  becomes  colorless  in  the  inner  flame,  by 
reduction  of  that  compound  to  manganous  oxide.     This  test  is 
very  sensitive,  and  serves  to  distinguish  manganese  from  other 
metals,  when  not  disguised  by  other  metals  forming  colored 
beads. 

CHARACTERISTIC  EEACTIONS,  297,  298,  3O4,  3O7,  311, 
312. 

SCHEME   FOR  THE   SEPARATION    AND    DETECTION    OF 
THE    MEMBERS  OF   GROUP    III. 

The  solution  to  be  examined  is  supposed  to  contain  a  CHRO- 
MIC SALT,  a  Salt  Of  ALUMINUM,  ZINC,  IRON,  COBALT,  NICKEL  and 
MANGANESE. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


113 


Add  AMMONIC  CHLORIDE,  then  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  (until  alka- 
line), and  then  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE.  There  will  be  precipi- 
tated: 


Filter  off  the  precipitate,  and  wash  it  ;   dissolve  it  in  the 
funnel  with  hydrochloric  acid  ;  then  wash.     There  will  be  a 


RESIDUE. 


SOLUTION. 


The  residue  will  contain 

The  solution  will  contain  the  Zn,    Mn,   Fe.   Al,  Cr,  and   H2S. 

CoS  +  NiS  +  S. 

Add  a  few  crystals  of  potassic  chlorate,  and  boil  to  destroy  H3S, 

Test  the  residue  with 
borax  bead  (after  wash- 

and to  change  FeO  to  Fe2Os.    Add  an  excess  of  potasoic  hydrate, 
filter  off  the  precipitate  and  wash. 

ing  well). 
Blue    bead    signifies— 

SOLUTION. 

PRECIPITATE. 

Cobalt. 
Brown  bead  signifies— 
Nickel. 

Solution  will  con- 
tain some  of  the  Zn, 
Al,  Cr.    Boil  the  so- 

Divide precipitate  into  thre 
IST  PART.           2o  PART. 

3  parts. 
3D  PART. 

See  §§  277,  292. 

lution  ;  a  precipitate 

Dissolve 

Fuse  on  platinum- 

Dissolve 

Place  precipitate  in    a 
porcelain  crucible,  paper 
and  all;  burn  it;  dissolve 
residue  in  hot  nitric  acid  ; 
dilute,  filter,  and  concen- 

will be    Cr2O3.5H.2O. 
See  §    216.       Filter, 
wash,  and   test    the 
precipitate  with  bo- 
rax bead.    See  §  219. 

in    hydro- 
chloric 
acid.  Then 
add  potas- 
sic sulpho- 

foil  with   soclic   ni- 
trate and  sodic  car- 
bonate.     If    green, 
manganese  is  pres- 
ent,   See  §  310.    Dis- 

in  warm 
hydrochlo- 
ric a  c  i  d. 
Add  sodic 
carbonate, 

trate    filtrate    to    a    few 

Divide    fil 

;rate  into 

cyanate, 

solve    residue     in 

a  m  in  onic 

drops.    Add  acetic  acid, 

two  parts. 

which  col- 

water  and  filter. 

hydrate 

then  potass 
off   the    p 
wash. 

FILTRATE. 

Add  po- 
tassic   hy- 
drate :      a 
p  r  e  c  i  p  i- 
tate  equal 
n  i  ckelous 
hydrate 
Ni(OH)a. 

sic  nitrite,  filter 
recipitate   and 

PRECIPITATE. 

A     yellow 
precipitate 
COaO3.2N2O5. 
6KNO3.2H.,O. 
See  §  274. 
Test     pre- 
cipitate with 
borux    t)6ftd 

IST  PART. 
Add  hy- 
dro s  u  1- 
p  h  u  r  i  c 
acid    or 
a  m  monic 
sulphide  ; 
a  precipi- 
tate is 
ZnS.H2O. 
See  §§  226, 
227.    Test 

SD  PART. 

Add  hy- 
drochloric 
acid,  then 
ammonic 
hydrate  ; 
a  precipi- 
tate  is 
A12(OH)6. 

See  §  203. 
Test  ac- 
cording to 

ors     the 
so  1  u  t  i  o  n 
a     deep 
blood  -red, 
s  h  o  w  i  ng 
the    pres- 
ence   of 
IRON.    See. 
§258.  Test 
also    with 
p  o  t  a  s  s  ic 
ferrocyan- 
ide,  §  256. 

SOLUTION. 
Contains 
Cr.  Mn.  Zn. 
Add  acetic 
acid   and 
divide    in 
halves. 

1st  Half. 
Add  plum- 
bic ace- 
tate;    a 
yell  o  w 

RESIDUE. 

Contains 
Mn.Fe.Zn. 
Dissolve 
in  hydrc- 
chloric 
acid.  Add 
pot  assic 
h  y  d  r  ate 
inexcess, 
filter,  add 
to  filtrate 
hydrosul- 

and  baric 
carbon- 
ate  :  shake 
well;  a  pre- 
cipitate ia 
a  greenish 
chromic 
hydrate 
and  baric 
salt.  Fil- 
ter, add 
ammonic 
hydrate  to 
filtrate; 

See  §  285. 
Filter   off 

to  be  sure.' 
See  §277. 

according 
to  §233. 

§208. 

precipi- 
tate is 

phu  ri  c 
acid;  a 

then  a  m- 
monic  sul- 

p  r  e  c  i  p  i- 

PbCrO4. 

precipi- 

ph i  d  e  , 

tate      and 

See    last 

tate  is 

which  will 

wash     it  ; 

part    of 

ZnS.H2O. 

show  the 

then     test 

§216. 

See  §  226. 

p  r  e  s  ence 

with     bo- 

of manga- 

rax   bead, 

3d  Half. 

nese  by  a 

to  be  sure. 

Add  alco- 

p r  e  c  i  p  i- 

See  §  292. 

hol.  Boil; 

tate 

filter*,  if 

MnS.xH2O. 

necessary; 
then     add 

See  §  298. 

hydro  sul- 

phur i  c 

acid;     a 

preci  pi- 

tate  is 

ZnS.H2O. 

See  §  226. 

GROUP    IV. 

Metals  NOT  PRECIPITATED  by  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  HYDRO- 
SULPHURIC  ACID,  or  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE. 

FIRST    DIVISION 

Will  contain  the  metals  which  are  precipitated  by  AMMONIC 
CARBONIC  in  presence  of  AMMONIC  CHLORIDE,  viz.  :  BARIUM, 
STRONTIUM,  and  CALCIUM. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

Will  contain  the  metal  which  is  not  precipitated  by  AMMONIC 
CARBONATE  in  presence  of  AMMONIC  CHLORIDE,  but  is  precipi- 
tated by  sodic  phosphate,  viz.,  Magnesium. 

FIRST   DIVISION. 
BARIUM. 

Symbol,  Ba.—  Atomic  weight,  137.  Equivalence,  II  and  IV.—  Recog- 
nized first  by  Scheele  in  1774.—  Isolated  by  Davy  in  1808.—  Sp.  Gr.,  4.00. 

BARIUM    OXIDES. 

Barium  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  two  oxides  :  BaO  and 
Ba02. 

BARIC  OXIDE,  BaO.  When  baric  iodate  is  ignited,  all  the 
iodine  is  given  off  and  f  of  its  oxygen,  there  then  remaining 
baric  oxide.  _^ 


When  baric  carbonate  is  exposed  to  the  strongest  heat  of  a 
forge-fire,  baric  oxide  and  carbonic  oxide  are  produced. 

BaC03  +  A  <5=  BaO  +  C02. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  115 

Baric  oxide  is  a  grayish-white,  friable  mass,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  4.7  (Karsten).  5.5±  (Filhol).  Heated  in  vapor  of 
carbon  disulphide,  it  forms  baric  carbonate  and  sulphide  • 


BARIC  HYDRATE,  BaO.H20  or  Ba(OH)2.  When  baric  oxide 
is  moistened  with  water,  it  combines  into  hydrate  with  great 
evolution  of  temperature.  May  be  prepared  by  boiling  the 
sulphide  with  water  and  cupric  oxide  : 


As  the  last  two  compounds  are  insoluble  if  the  liquid  is  fil- 
tered and  the  filtrate  allowed  to  cool,  crystals  of  hydrate  are 
deposited  as  the  liquid  cools  [Ba(OH)2.8H20]. 

BARIC  DIOXIDE,  Ba02,  may  be  obtained  by  heating  baric 
oxide  or  hydrate  to  low  redness  in  a  current  of  pure  oxygen 
or  of  air  free  from  carbonic  oxide.  It  is  a  gray  powder.  When 
thrown  into  water  it  diffuses  itself,  forming  a  hydrate  which 
probably  contains  Ba02.3H20. 

Argentic  oxide,  chloride,  sulphate  or  carbonate  introduced 
into  an  acid  solution  of  baric  dioxide,  is  partly  reduced  to 
metallic  silver.  Silver  compounds  in  small  quantities  or  other 
similar  compounds  are  capable  of  reducing  large  quantities  of 
baric  dioxide.  Iodine,  on  the  other  hand,  decomposes  it  in 
exactly  atomic  proportions  : 

Ba02-f  l2=Bal2  +  20. 

METALLIC   BARIUM. 

313.  WATER.  Barium  decomposes  water  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, forming  BARIC  OXIDE  and  evolving  hydrogen  : 


314.  HEATED  IN  THE  AIR,  it  burns  with  a  dark-red  light 
(Davy),  but  heated  before  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  it  burns 
with  a  greenish  flame  (Clarke). 


116  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

315.  SULPHURIC  ACID  converts  the  metal  very  rapidly  into 
BARIC  SULPHATE,  with  evolution  of  hydrogen. 


Ba+H2S04=BaS04  +  2H; 

BARIC   SALTS. 

All  baric  salts  are  colorless,  except  those  which  have  a 
colored  acid.  Most  of  the  salts  are  insoluble  in  water,  but 
dissolve  in  hydrochloric  acid,  with  the  exception  of  baric  sul- 
phate and  silicofluoride,  which  are  insoluble  in  any  acid. 
The  soluble  salts  do  not  affect  litmus-paper.  Baric  nitrate 
and  chloride  are  insoluble  in  alcohol.  All  but  baric  chloride 
are  decomposed  upon  ignition. 

Solution  lest  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

BAKIC  CHLORIDE,  BaCl2. 

316.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  (pure)  forms  no  precipitate  even 
in  the  most  concentrated  solutions. 

317.  POTASSIC   HYDRATE  (free  from  carbonate)  produces  in 
concentrated  solutions  a  precipitate  of  BARIC  HYDRATE  : 

=  Ba(OH)2.8H 


Water  dissolves  the  bulky  precipitate  [Ba(OH)2.8H20]. 

318.  SODIC  or  AMMONIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  white  pre- 

cipitate Of  BARIC  CARBONATE  I 

BaCl2  +  Na2C03  =  BaC03  +  2NaCl. 
BaCl2  +  (N  H4)2C03  =  BaC03  +  2N  H4C1. 

Baric  carbonate  is  slightly  soluble  in  ammonic  chloride,  so 
that  if  the  solution  is  very  dilute  no  precipitate  is  produced. 
With  amrnonic  carbonate,  in  acid  solution,  a  precipitate  is 
only  produced  upon  heating  the  fluid  when  the  last  reagent  is 
used. 

319.  SULPHURIC  ACID  AND  ALL  SOLUBLE  SULPHATES  throw 
down  from  all  baric  salts,  whether  neutral  or  acid,  a  white 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  117 

pulverulent  precipitate  of  BARIC  SULPHATE,  which  is  insoluble 
in  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid  even  at  a  boiling  heat  : 

BaCl2+H2S04=BaS04  +  2HCl. 
BaCl2  +  NatS04=B^4  +  2NaCl. 

According  to  Harting,  a  solution  of  baric  chloride  containing 
1  pt.  of  barium  in  71,000  pts.  of  water  becomes  turbid  with  sodic 
sulphate  after  the  lapse  of  half  an  hour.  A  solution  of  nitrate 
in  200,000  to  400,000  pts.  of  water,  after  some  minutes  gives 
a  cloudiness,  but  in  800,000  pts.  of  water  the  reaction  is  no 
longer  visible.  —  (LASSAIGNE.) 

320.  SODIO   PHOSPHATE  produces,  in   neutral   or   alkaline 
solutions,  a  white  precipitate  of  baric  phosphate  (BaP04),  which 
is  soluble  in  free  acid.     If  ammonic  hydrate  is  added,  a  por- 
tion of  the  precipitate  is  converted  into  basic  baric  phosphate 
(3BaO.P205  or  Ba3P208). 

321.  POTASSIC  CHROMATE  produces  a  yellow  precipitate  of 

BARIC   CHROMATE  (BaO04)  : 

BaCl2  +  K2Cr04=:  BaCr04  +  2KC1. 

The  precipitate  dissolves  in  nitric,  hydrochloric,  or  excess 
of  chromic  acid,  forming  a  reddish-yellow  colored  solution, 
from  which  it  may  be  precipitated  by  ammonic  hydrate. 

POTASSIC  BICHROMATE  may  be  used. 

322.  POTASSIC  OXALATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 
BARIC  OXALATE  (Ba2C408.2H20),  soluble  in  hydrochloric  and 
nitric  acid  : 

+  2KC204+H20=Ba2C408.2H2 


This  precipitate  dissolves  in  oxalic  acid  and  acetic  acid  ;  but 
the  solution  rapidly  deposits  in  the  form  of  a  crystalline  powder 
of  an  HYDROBARIC  OXALATE  (Ba204C4H2.4H20). 

323.  HYDROFLUOSILICIC  ACID,  when  added,  produces  a  pre- 
cipitate of  microscopic  crystals,  insoluble  in  excess  of  the  acid, 
composed  of  BARIC  SILICOFLUORIDE  (BaSiF6). 

+  SiH2F6  =  BaSiF6  + 
2HF.SiF4=SiH2F6. 


118  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

The  precipitate  is  nearly  insoluble  in  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acid.  This  reaction  will  detect  one  part  of  baric  chloride  in 
3800  pts.  of  water.  Alcohol  favors  the  precipitation.  Stron- 
tium compounds  not  ~being  precipitated  by  silicofluoric  acid, 
are  therefore  easily  detected  from  barium  compounds  and  vice 
versa. 

324:.  HEATED.  Baric  salts,  when  heated  with  dilute  alco- 
hol, impart  to  the  flame  a  GKEENISH-YELLOW  color  (not  very 
characteristic).  When  heated  in  the  inner  blowpipe  flame, 
the  outer  flame  is  colored  yellowish-green.  This  flame,  when 
viewed  through  green  glass,  appears  BLUE-GREEN. 

CHARACTERISTIC  KEACTIONS,  316,  319,  32O,  324,  323. 

STRONTIUM. 

Symbol,  Sr. — Atomic  weight,  88. — Equivalence,  II  and  IV. — Distinguished 
by  Hope  in  1792. — Prepared  pure  by  Matthiessen  in  1855. — Atomic  volume, 
34.56.— Specific  gravity,  2.54— Electric  conductivity,  6.71  (at  68-62°  F.). 

STRONTIUM   OXIDES. 

Strontium  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  two  oxides :  STRONTIC 
OXIDE  and  STRONTIC  PEROXIDE. 

STRONTIC  OXIDE,  SrO,  may  be  prepared  by  heating  strontic 
nitrate  to  redness,  or  by  exposing  the  carbonate,  either  alone 
or  mixed  with  charcoal,  to  the  strongest  heat  of  a  forge-fire. 
It  is  a  grayish- white  porous  mass  of  specific  gravity,  3.0  to 
4.0  (Davy),  3.932  (Karsten),  infusible,  not  volatile,  and  glows 
in  the  blowpipe  flame  with  a  dazzling  white  light. 

STRONTIC  HYDRATE,  SrO.H20  =  Sr(OH)2,  may  be  produced  by 
adding  atomic  quantities  of  water  to  strontic  oxide,  when  the 
mass  becomes  hot,  and  the  strontia  hardens  to  a  crystalline 
hydrate.  On  dissolving  the  hydrate  with  five  or  six  pts.  of 
boiling  water,  filtering  hot,  and  leaving  the  solution  to  cool, 
needle-shaped  transparent  crystals  of  [Sr(OH)2.8H20]  are  de- 
posited, which  deliquesce  when  exposed  to  the  air.  When 
heated  to  100°  C.,  or  above,  they  give  off  fifty  per  cent,  of 
water  and  leave  strontic  hydrate  [Sr(OH)2], 

STRONTIC  PEROXIDE  is  obtained  as  hydrate  in  shining  scales  by 
mixing  "  strontia  water  "  with  hydrogen  peroxide. — (THENARD.) 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  119 

METALLIC   STRONTIUM. 

325.  Heated  in  the  air,  it  burns  with  a  beautiful  red  light, 
strontic  oxide  being  formed. 

326.  ACIDS.     Hydrochloric,   sulphuric,   and  dilute   nitric 
act   upon   strontium,  nitric   acid   often  causing  it  to  ignite. 
Concentrated  nitric  acid  does  not  act  upon  it  below  the  boil- 
ing heat. 

327.  Water  is  readily  decomposed  by  metallic  strontium, 
strontic  oxide  and  hydrogen  gas  being  formed. 


STRONTIC   SALTS. 

Strontic  chloride  deliquesces  in  moist  air,  and  dissolves  in 
absolute  alcohol  ;  but  strontic  nitrate  does  not  dissolve  in 
absolute  alcohol,  nor  does  it  deliquesce  when  exposed  to  the  air. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

STRONTIC  NITRATE  [Sr(N03)2]. 

328.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  does   not  produce  a  precipitate 
when  added  to  strontic  nitrate. 

329.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  precipitate  of  strontic 
hydrate  [Sr(OH)2.8H20]  : 

=  Sr(OH)2.8H2 


This  precipitate  of  crystals  dissolves  more  easily  in  water 
than  the  corresponding  baric  salt. 

33O.  SODIC  or  AMMONIC  CARBONATE  produces  a  white  pre- 

cipitate Of  STRONTIC  CARBONATE  ! 

Sr(N03)2  +  Na2C03  =  SrC03  +  2NaN03. 


Strontic  carbonate  dissolves  in  ammonic  chloride  with  more 
difficulty  than  baric  carbonate. 


120  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

331.  SULPHURIC  ACID  and  SULPHATES  produces  a  precipitate 
of  STEONTIC  SULPHATE  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder  : 


+  H2S04=SrS04-h2HN03. 
Sr(N03)2-hNa2S04=SrS04  +  2NaN03. 

If  the  solution  is  heated,  the  precipitation  is  greatly  pro- 
moted. 

Strontic  sulphate  is  far  more  soluble  in  water  than  baric 
sulphate,  therefore  from  dilute  solution  it  takes  a  longer  time 
for  it  to  separate  ;  even  in  concentrated  solutions,  if  a  calcic 
sulphate  solution  is  used,  the  precipitate  takes  some  time  in 
forming.  As  strontic  sulphate  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  if  it  be 
added  the  precipitate  will  form  far  more  rapidly.  If  the  solu- 
tion is  acid  with  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid,  the  reaction  is  not 
so  delicate,  as  strontic  sulphate  is  perceptibly  soluble  in  those 
acids. 

If  baric  chloride  is  added  to  a  solution  of  baric  sulphate  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  then  water,  the  mixture  becomes  turbid. 
Strontic  sulphate  decomposes  by  long  digestion  in  solutions  of 
ammonic  carbonate  or  dicarbonate  ;  also,  and  far  more  rapidly, 
in  a  boiling  solution  of  one  part  of  potassic  carbonate  and 
three  parts  of  potassic  sulphate.  (This  is  an  important  dis- 
tinction from  baric  sulphate.) 

332.  HYDROFLUOSILICIO  ACID  fails  to  produce  a  precipitate 
in  dilute  or  concentrated  solutions.     (See  §  326.) 

333.  AMMONIC  OXALATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  from 
even  dilute  solution  of  STEONTIC  OXALATE  (SrC204.H20). 

Sr(N03)2  +  (NH4)2C204+H20  =  SrC204.H20  +  2NH4N03. 

Strontic  oxalate  dissolves  readily  in  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  slightly  in  ammonic  salts,  but  very  slightly  in  oxalic 
or  acetic  acids. 

334.  SODIC   PHOSPHATE  produces   a   white   precipitate   of 
STEONTIC  PHOSPHATE  (Sr2H2P208  or  SrH  P04)  : 

Sr(N03)2  +  Na2H  P04  =  SrH  P04  +  2NaN03. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  121 

Strontic  orthophosphate  is  a  white  powder,  insoluble  in 
water,  but  soluble  in  water  containing  acids  or  ammonic 
salts. 

335.  HEATED  with  alcohol,  and  the  mixture  ignited  and 
stirred,  the  flame  will  be  a  beautiful  carmine  color.  If  strontic 
salts  be  exposed  on  platinum-wire  to  the  inner  flame  of  the 
blowpipe,  the  outer  flame  is  colored  red,  which,  when  viewed 
through  a  blue  glass,  appears  purple  to  rose-colored,  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  calcic  salts,  which,  under  the  same  circum- 
stances, has  a  faint  green-gray  tint. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  331,  332,  335. 

CALCIUM. 

Symbol,  Ca. —  Atomic  weight,  40. —  Equivalence,  II  and  IV. —  Specific 
gravity,  1.5778. — Atomic  volume,  25.28. — Discovered  by  Davy  in  1808,  and 
in  1855  by  Matthiessen  in  a  pure  state. 

CALCIUM   OXIDES. 

Calcium  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  two  oxides :  CaO  and 
Ca02. 

CALCIC  OXIDE,  CaO  (Lime),  may  be  prepared  by  heating 
any  calcic  salt  containing  an  easily  expelled  acid,  such  as  calcic 
nitrate  or  carbonate,  etc. : 

CaC03+  A<?=CaO  +  C02. 

Lime  or  calcic  oxide,  when  pure,  forms  a  white  porous  mass 
of  specific  gravity  2.3  to  3.08.  Lime  takes  up  water  very 
rapidly,  generating  steam,  then  falling  to  a  powder  (known  as 
slaked  lime),  which  is  calcic  hydrate  (or  hydrate  of  lime)  [Ca 
(OH)2=:CaO.H20].  This  powder  is  soft,  and  at  a  red  heat 
gives  off  its  water  and  is  converted  again  into  qitick-\ime. 

CALCIC  DIOXIDE,  Ca02  (peroxide),  is  known  only  in  the  state 
of  hydrate,  which  falls  down  in  fine  crystalline  scales  when 
lime-water  is  mixed  with  an  aqueous  solution  of  hydrogen 
peroxide. — (THENARD.  ) 


122  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


METALLIC   CALCIUM. 

336.   WATER   is   decomposed  by   calcium  ;   CALCIC   OXIDE 
(CaO)  being  formed  and  hydrogen  being  liberated. 


337.  ACIDS,  such  as  dilute  nitric,  hydrochloric,  and  sul- 
phuric, rapidly  act  upon  the  metal.     Nitric  acid  acts  so  rapidly 
sometimes  that  the  metal  ignites.     Concentrated  nitric  .acid 
will  not  act  upon  the  metal  unless  heated  to  boiling. 

338.  HEATED  in   the  air   on  platinum,  it  burns  with  a 
bright  flash,  oxidizing  and  forming  calcic  oxide. 

CALCIC   SALTS. 

All  calcic  salts  dissolve  in  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid  (calcic 
sulphate  excepted).  Calcic  bromide,  iodide,  nitrate,  acetate, 
and  many  other  organic  salts  dissolve  in  water.  Calcic  car- 
bonate, borate,  phosphate,  arsenate,  and  oxalate  are  insoluble 
in  water  ;  the  sulphate  is  sparingly  soluble.  Calcic  chloride 
and  nitrate  are  soluble  in  absolute  alcohol,  and  deliquesce  in 
the  air. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

CALCIC  CHLORIDE  (CaCl2).    (HYDRATED  CALCIC  CHLORIDE, 
CaCl2.3H20.) 

339.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  produces  no  precipitate. 

340.  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  produces  a  white  gelatinous  pre- 
cipitate of  calcic  hydrate  [Ca(OH)2],  unless  the  solution  is  very 
dilute. 

+  2KOH=Ca(OH)2 


341.  SODIC  CARBONATE  produces   a  white  precipitate  of 

CALCIC   CARBONATE  (CaC03)  : 


Calcic  carbonate  is  soluble  with  effervescence  in  nitric,  hydro- 
chloric, and  acetic  acids. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  123 

Hydrosodic  carbonate  produces  no  precipitate  in  the  cold  ; 
but  on  boiling,  a  pulverulent  precipitate  is  produced  with 
escape  of  carbonic  oxide. 

342.  SULPHURIC  ACID  and  SOLUBLE  SULPHATES  produce  im- 
mediately a  white  precipitate  of  HYDEATED  CALCIC  SULPHATE, 
unless  the  solution  is  too  dilute,  in  which  case  if  alcohol  be 
added,  the  precipitate  is  soon  deposited,  as  calcic  sulphate  is 
insoluble  in  alcohol. 

04  +  2H20=CaS04.2H2 


+  2H20=CaS04.2H 


Hydrated  calcic  sulphate  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  the 
anhydrous  salt  nearly  insoluble.  1  pt.  of  hydrate  dissolves 
in  332  pts.  of  water  at  any  temperature  (Lassaigne).  The 
solubility  is  increased  by  the  presence  of  acids  and  sodic 
chloride. 

343.  HYDEOFLUOSILICIC  ACID  produces  no  precipitate.     (See 
§326.) 

344.  AMMONIC    OXALATE   "precipitates   HYDKATED    CALCIC 
OXALATE  (CaC204.H20)  as  a  white  pulverulent  powder,  at  the 
boiling  heat  or  in  the  cold  from  concentrated  solutions.    From 
very  dilute  solutions  (provided  there  is  no  free  mineral  acid 
present),  in  the  cold  the  precipitate  is  always  a  mixture  of 
(CaC204.H20  and  CaC204.3H20)."  —  (SOUCHAY  AND  LESSEN.) 

CaCl2  +  (NH4)2C204+H20=CaC204.H2 


345.  SODIC  PHOSPHATE  precipitates  hydrated  dicalcic  ortho- 
phosphate  (Ca2H2P208.xH20  or  CaHP04.xH20)  : 

=  CaHP04.xH2+2NaCl. 


If  the  solution  is  very  slightly  acid,  the  precipitate  forms 
more  rapidly.  The  precipitate  is  more  or  less  soluble  in  acids 
according  to  the  manner  of  precipitations. 

346.  HEATED.  When  alcohol  is  burnt  on  soluble  calcic 
salts,  the  flame  is  red  tinged  with  yellow  ;  viewed  through  a 
green  glass,  the  flame  appears  siskin-green;  through  a  blue 


124  THE  CHEMISTS;  MANUAL. 

glass,  a  faint  green-gray  tint.  The  hydrated  chloride  and  a 
few  other  calcic  compounds,  when  heated  in  the  blowpipe- 
flame  on  platinum-wire,  impart  a  red  color  to  the  flame,  similar 
to  that  of  strontium,  but  less  intense ;  the  color  disappears  as 
soon  as  the  salts  are  dehydrated,  and  does  not  appear  at  all  if 
baric  salts  are  present. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  341,  342,  343,  344,  345, 
346. 

[The  separation  and  detection  of  the  members  of  the  first 
division  of  Group  IV  will  be  given  combined  with  the  mem- 
bers of  the  second  division.] 

SECOND    DIVISION. 
MAGNESIUM, 

Symbol,  Mg. — Atomic  weight,  24. — Equivalence,  II. — A  wire  0.297  mm. 
in  thickness  gives  a  light  equal  to  74  stearine  candles,  five  of  which  weigh  a 
pound. — Atomic  volume,  13.76. — Specific  heat,  0.245. — Specific  gravity,  1.74. 
—Electric  conductivity  at  62.6°  F.  is  25.47. 

MAGNESIUM    OXIDE. 

MAGNESIC  OXIDE,  MgO  (Magnesia),  may  be  produced  by 
burning  the  metal  in  the  air  or  in  oxygen  gas,  or  when  car- 
bonate or  nitrate  is  ignited  in  the  air.  It  is  a  white  powder, 
having  a  specific  gravity  of  3.07  to  3.200,  increased  by  ignition 
in  a  pottery-furnace  to  3.61  (H.  Rose).  It  melts  under  oxy- 
hydrogen  blowpipe,  and  is  converted  into  an  enamel  which 
scratches  glass  like  a  diamond  (Clark). 

MAGNESIC  HYDRATE,  Mg(OH)2,  occurs  native  as  brucite,  and 
is  precipitated  as  a  white  powder  on  adding  potassic  or  sodic 
hydrate  or  baryta  water  in  excess  to  the  solution  of  a  magnesic 

salt. 

MAGNESIUM. 

347.  HEATED  to  redness  in  the  air  or  in  oxygen  gas,  it 
burns  with  a  bluish-white  light,  forming  magnesic  oxide. 

Mg-f-0  —  MgO. 

348.  WATER  is  decomposed  by  the  metal  very  slowly,  but 
if  the  water  be  acidulated  the  decomposition  is  very  rapid. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  125 

349.  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID.     When  the  metal  is  thrown  on 
this  acid,  it  takes  fire  momentarily. 

350.  SULPHURIC    ACID,    when    concentrated,    dissolves    it 
slowly,  forming  MAGNESIC  SULPHATE  (MgS04)  : 


A  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  fuming  nitric  acid  does  not 
act  upon  it  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

MAGNESIC   SALTS. 

Magnesium  salts  are  colorless  unless  they  contain  a  colored 
acid.  They  all  dissolve  in  hydrochloric  acid,  with  the  exception 
of  magnesic  liietaphosphate.  Magnesic  carbonate,  borate,  phos- 
phate, arsenate,  arsenite,  and  many  organic  salts  are  insoluble  in 
water,  but  most  of  these  salts  are  soluble  in  AMMONIC  CHLORIDE  ; 
most  of  the  others  are  soluble  in  water.  They  have  a  bitter  taste. 
They  are  decomposed  on  ignition  (magnesic  sulphate  excepted). 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

MAGNESIC  SULPHATE  (MgS04). 

351.  HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  or  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE  produce 
no  precipitate. 

352.  AMMONIC  HYDRATE,  wrhen  added  to  an  aqueous  pure 
solution  of  a  magnesic  salt,  produces  a  precipitate  of  MAGNESIC 
HYDRATE  [Mg(OH)2],  which  is  insoluble  in  excess: 

MgS04  +  2N  H40  H  =  Mg(0  H)2  +  (N  H4)2S04. 

If  the  solution  were  made  previously  acid  (no  excess),  no 
precipitate  would  be  produced,  owing  to  the  formation  of  an 
ammonic  salt.  Even  if  the  solution  is  neutral,  only  part  of 
the  magnesia  is  precipitated,  owing  to  the  formation  of  a 
double  ammonic  salt. 

353.  POTASSIC   HYDRATE  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 

MAGNESIC    HYDRATE   [Mg(OH)2]  I 

MgS04  +  2KOH  =  Mg(OH)2  +  K2S04. 
The  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  ammonic  salts,  especially  in 

AMMONIC    CHLORIDE. 

354.  SODIC   CARBONATE   produces   a  white  precipitate   of 


126  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

BASIC     MAGNESIC     CARBONATE     [4MgC03  +   Mg(OH)2  -f 

"  One-fifth  of  the  carbonic  oxide  liberated  in  the  process  com- 
bines with  a  portion  of  the  magnesic  carbonate  and  forms 
a  dicarbonate,  which  remains  in  solution.  But  if  the  solution 
be  boiled,  further  precipitation  takes  place  (MgC03  +  3H20  is 
produced)."  Ammonic  chloride  and  other  ammonic  salts  pre- 
vent the  precipitation  and  dissolve  the  precipitate  formed. 

355.  AMMONIC  CARBONATE  produces,  after  a  time,  a  white 
precipitate   of  AMMONIO-MAGNESIC    CARBONATE    [(NH4)2C03-f 
MgC03  +  4H20  =  (NH4)2Mg(C03)2.4H20]  in  concentrated  solu- 
tion, but  not  in  very  dilute  solutions.      AMMONIC  CHLORIDE 
only  hinders  the  precipitation,  but  does  not  prevent  it  in  con- 
centrated solutions. 

356.  BARIC  HYDRATE  and  CALCIC  HYDRATE  both  precipitate 
magnesic  hydrate : 

MgS04+  Ba(OH)2=Mg(OH)2  +  BaS04. 
MgS04  +  Ca(OH)2=Mg(OH)2-hCaS04. 

This  reaction  affords  an  easy  means  of  separating  magnesia 
from  the  alkalies. 

357.  SODIC  PHOSPHATE,  when  added  to  neutral  solutions, 
produce  a  white  precipitate  of  MAGNESIC  PHOSPHATE  (MgHP04. 
7H20).     If  this  precipitate  be  boiled,  TRIMAGNESIC  PHOSPHATE 
[Mg3(P04)2.7H20]  is  produced: 

MgS04+Na2HP04  +  TH20=:MgHP04.TH20  +  Na2S04. 

If  ammonic  hydrate  and  ammonic  chloride  be  added  before 
precipitating,  the  precipitate  will  be  AMMONIC  DIMAGNESIC 
ORTHOPHOSPHATE  [(N H4)2Mg2(P04)2.12H20],  which  is  a  crystal- 
line precipitate.  This  is  a  very  delicate  test  for  magnesic  salts. 

If  the  solution  is  very  dilute,  the  crystals  attach  themselves 
to  the  glass,  on  the  sides.  According  to  Harting  (J.  pr. 
Chem.,  xxii.  50),  a  solution  containing  only  s-fl-flWff  of  mag- 
nesia gives  a  precipitate  after  twenty-four  hours  with  am- 
monic phosphate  mixed  with  free  ammonic  hydrate,  provided 
the  latter  solution  is  highly  concentrated  and  added  in  equal 
quantity. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


127 


358.  AMMONIC   OXALATE,   in   concentrated  solutions,   pro- 
duces  a   white   precipitate   of  MAGNESIC    OXALATE   (MgC204. 
2H20),  mixed  with  various  AMMONIC-MAGNESIC  OXALATES. 

359.  SULPHURIC  ACID  produces  no  precipitate. 

360.  HYDROFLUOSILICIC  ACID  produces  no  precipitate. 

361.  HEATED  ON  CHARCOAL,  when  moistened  with  water  to 
redness,  then  moistened  with  one  drop  of  cobaltic  nitrate; 
heated   again,  first  gently,   then  intensely,  in  the  oxidation 
flame,  a  pinkish  mass  is  obtained  which  becomes  apparent  on 
cooling.     The  salt  must  be  free  from  alkalies,  alkaline  earths, 
and  heavy  metallic  oxides  to  manifest  this  reaction. 

363.  FLAME.     Magnesic  salts  impart  no  color  to  the  flame. 
CHARACTERISTIC  KEACTIONS,  357,  356,  359,  36O,  362. 


SCHEME  FOR  THE  SEPARATION  AND  DETECTION  OF  THE 

MEMBERS  OF  GROUP  IV. 
The  solution  to  be  examined  is  supposed  to  contain  a  salt 

Of  BARIUM,  CALCIUM,  STRONTIUM,  and  MAGNESIUM. 

Add  AMMONIC  CHLORIDE,  then  AMMONIC  HYDRATE,  and  then 
AMMONIC  CARBONATE,  there  will  be  precipitated  BARIC,  STRON- 
TIC,  and  CALCIC  CARBONATE  ;  filter  and  wash  the  precipitate. 


PRECIPITATE. 
BaC03  +  SrC03  +  CaC03. 
Dissolve  in  hydrochloric  acid ;  add 
sodic  acetate,  and  then   potassic  di- 
chromate ;    a  yellow   precipitate    (Ba 
Cr03)  is  produced ;  filter  and  wash. 


FILTRATE. 

Test  for  magnesic  salt  by  adding 
sodic  phosphate ;  there  will  be  pre- 
cipitated magnesic  phosphate  [Mg3 
(P04).7H80].  (See  §357.) 


PRECIPITATE. 

BaCr03. 
(See  §321.) 


FILTRATE. 

Add  to  a  portion  of  the  filtrate  calcic  sulphate,  and 
wait  ten  minutes,  if  a  precipitate  forms.  Add  to  the  re- 
maining portion  potassic  sulphate;  a  precipitate  is  pro- 


duced ;  filter  and  wash  thoroughly. 


PRECIPITATE. 

Strontic    sulphate,    SrS04. 
5§  331,  335.) 


(See 


FILTRATE. 

Add  ammonic  hydrate  and  oxalic 
acid;  a  white  precipitate'  is  CaC2O4. 
^344,346,342.) 


GROUP  V. 

To  this  Group  belong  POTASSIUM,  SODIUM,  and  AMMONIA, 
neither  of  which  are  precipitated  by  HYDKOCHLORIC  ACID, 
HYDEOSULPHUEIC  ACID,  AMMONIC  SULPHIDE,  AMMONIC  CAR- 

BONATE,  or   SODIC   PHOSPHATE. 

POTASSIUM. 

Symbol,  K.  —  Atomic  weight,  39.1.—  Equivalence,  I,  III  and  V.  —  Atomic 
volume,  44.96.—  Specific  heat,  0.16956.—  Fusing  point,  144.5°  F.—  Specific 
gravity,  0.860.  Electric  conductivity  between  68°-71°  F.,  20.85. 

POTASSIUM    OXIDES. 

Potassium  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  three  oxides,  K20, 
K202,  K204.  "  A  gray  suboxide  is  said  also  to  be  found  during 
the  gradual  oxidation  of  the  metal  in  the  air,  but  it  is  proba- 
bly a  mixture  of  the  protoxide  with  potassium."  —  (WATT.) 

POTASSIC    PROTOXIDE,  (K20),    Or   ANHYDROUS    POTASH.       When 

potassium  is  exposed  to  air  free  from  moisture  in  thin  slices, 
potassic  protoxide  is  produced,  or  when  1  at.  of  potassium  is 
heated  with  1  at.  of  potassic  hydrate. 


It  is  white,  very  deliquescent  and  caustic,  volatilizes  at  a 
high  temperature,  melts  at  a  low  heat.  Combines  with  water 
very  rapidly. 

POTASSIC  PEROXIDE,  (K204),  or  TETROXIDE,  may  be  prepared 
by  heating  pure  potassium  in  a  current  of  dry  air  moderately, 
and  then  in  dry  oxygen  gas.  It  is  a  chrom-yellow  powder 
which  cakes  together  about  280°  C.  It  absorbs  moisture  from 
the  air,  and  is  decomposed  by  water  forming  potassic  dioxide, 
K202. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  129 

POTASSIC  DIOXIDE,  K?02,  is  formed  at  a  certain  stage  in  the 
preparation  of  the  peroxide,  but  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  it  free 
from  the  yellow  peroxide.  It  is  a  white  powder  ;  its  aqueous 
solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving  potassic  peroxide  in  water 
as  stated  above. 

POTASSIUM. 

3,63.  HEATED  in  the  air  to  its  point  of  volatilization,  it 
bursts  into  flame  and  burns  rapidly  with  a  violet  light,  forming 
potassic  oxide  (K20). 


364.  WATER  is  decomposed  with  great  violence  by  potas- 
sium,  displacing  half  the    hydrogen    and   forming  POTASSIC 

HYDKATE.  ~*~ 


"  The  escaping  hydrogen  carries  with  it  a  small  portion  of  the  vola- 
tilized metal,  and  takes  fire  from  the  heat  evolved,  burning  with  a  beauti- 
ful rose-red  flame,  while  the  metal  floats  on  the  water,  and  finally  disap- 
pears with  an  explosive  b.urst  of  steam  as  the  globule  of  melted  potash 
becomes  cool  enough  to  come  into  contact  with  the  water." 

POTASSIC   SALTS. 

'  Most  of  the  salts  are  readily  soluble  in  water.  They  are 
colorless,  unless  colored  by  their  constituent  acid.  Potassic 
sulphate,  carbonate,  phosphate,  arsenate,  and  borate  are  not 
decomposed  by  heat.  Potassic  chloride,  bromide,  iodide,  and 
hydrate  volatilize  without  decomposition  at  a  very  high  tem- 
perature. Most  other  potassic  salts  are  decomposed  by  heat. 

Solution  best  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

POTASSIC  CHLORIDE,  KC1. 

365.  PLATTNIC  DICHLOEIDE  produces  a  yellow  crystalline 
precipitate  of  potassic  chloro-platinate  (2KCl.PtCl4=K2PtCl6) 
in  neutral  and  acid  solutions  : 


+  2HCl-hPtCl=KPtCl 


130  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

In  concentrated  solution  the  precipitate  forms  immediately, 
in  dilute  solution  only  after  standing  for  some  time,  and  in 
very  dilute  solution  the  precipitate  is  only  discernible  under 
the  microscope. 

The  dilute  solution  is  best  to  be  evaporated  to  a  small  bulk, 
then  add  alcohol  and  a  little  ether  (as  potassic  chloroplatinite 
is  not  soluble  in  alcohol  or  ether,  but  is  to  some  extent  in 
water).  As  AMMONIC  CHLOEOPLATLNTTE  greatly  resembles  PO- 
TASSIC CHLOEOPLATLNTTE,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound 
the  two. 

366.  SODIC  HYDEOTAETEATE,  NaC4H506,  produces  a  white 
crystalline  precipitate  of  ACID  POTASSIC  TAETEATE  (KC4H506): 

KC1+  NaC4H506  =  KC4H506  +  KC1. 

The  precipitate  is  soluble  ^  in  180  pts.  of  cold  water,  readily 
soluble  in  acids  or  in  alkaline  solutions,  insoluble  in  alcohol. 
In  dilute  solution  the  precipitation  is  facilitated  by  addition 
of  alcohol,  also  by  agitating  the  solution  or  scratching  the  side 
of  the  vessel  with  a  glass  rod.  Better  evaporate  to  small  bulk, 
add  alcohol,  then  the  acid  sodic  tartrate. 

367.  TAETAEIC  ACID  produces  the  same  precipitate  as  sodic 
hydrotartrate  in  neutral  or  alkaline  solutions.     If  the  solution 
is  acid,  the  acid  must  first  be  neutralized.     The  precipitate 
forms  very  rapidly  in  concentrated  solutions,  but  not  in  very 
dilute   solutions;   they  must  first  be  evaporated  to  a  small 
volume. 

KC1+  H.C4H506  =  KC4H506  +  HC1. 

368.  FLAME.     Any  potassic  salt  that  is  volatile  at  a  red 
heat  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  outer  blowpipe  flame, 
colors  the  flame  violet. 

Alcoholic  solutions  of  potassic  salts  burn  with  a  violet  flame. 
The  color  is  not  visible  in  the  presence  of  sodium  or  (lithium)  ; 
but  if  viewed  through  a  plate  of  dark-blue  glass,  the  sodium 
flame  is  cut  off,  and  and  the  potassium  flame  becomes  dis- 
tinctly visible  as  a  rich  reddish- violet  color. 

CHAEACTEEISTIC  REACTIONS,  365,  366,  368. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  -MANUAL.  131 


SODI  UM. 

Symbol,  N  a.—  Atomic  weight,  23.—  Specific  gravity,  0.972.  Atomic  vol- 
ume, 23.60.—  Specific  heat,  0.29340.—  Fusing  point,  207.7°  F.—  Electric  con- 
ductivity between  68°-71°  F.,  37.43. 

SODIUM    OXIDES. 

Sodium  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  two  oxides  :  Na20  and 
Na202. 

SODIC  OXIDE,  Na20  (protoxide  or  anhydrous  soda).  When 
metallic  sodium  is  burnt  in  the  air,  sodic  protoxide  and  dioxide 
are  produced.  If  the  dioxide  be  exposed  to  a  very  high  tem- 
perature, the  protoxide  is  produced,  or  if  sodic  hydrate  be 
heated  with  atomic  quantities  of  metallic  sodium. 


The  specific  gravity  of  the  protoxide  is  2.805.  —  (KAESTEN.) 
SODIC  DIOXIDE,  Na202  (peroxide).  This  oxide  may  be  pre- 
pared by  igniting  the  metal  in  oxygen  gas  until  constant 
weight.  It  is  a  pure  white  powder,  which  becomes  yellow  on 
heating,  and  on  cooling,  white  again.  "When  thrown  into 
water  little  by  little,  a  solution  of  dioxide  is  obtained.  If  this 
solution  be  evaporated  over  oil  of  vitriol,  crystals  of  SODIC 
DIOXIDE  HYDRATE  are  obtained  (Na202.8H20).  These  crystals 
left  to  effervesce  for  nine  days  over  oil  of  vitriol,  form  another 
hydrate,  Na202.2H20. 

SODIUM. 

369.  HEATED  in  the  air,  it  burns  with  a  yellowish  flame, 
forming  SODIC  PROTOXIDE  and  DIOXIDE. 

Na4  +  03  =  Na20  +  Na202. 

When  simply  exposed  to  the  air,  it  oxidizes  like  potassium, 
but  not  so  rapidly. 

370.  WATER  is  decomposed  when  sodium  is  dropped  on  it  ; 
hydrogen  is  evolved  while  the  metal  runs  around  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  ;  the  hydrogen  does  not  take  fire  unless  the 
water  is  previously  heated. 


132  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

SODIC    SALTS. 

Sodic  salts  are  more  generally  soluble  than  potassic  salts. 
They  are  colorless  unless  colored  by  some  colored  acid. 

Sodic  carbonate  crystallizes  readily  whilst  potassic  carbonate 
crystallizes  with  difficulty.  The  tabular  crystals  of  sodic  car- 
bonate effervesce  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  same 
applies  to  sodic  sulphate,  but  not  to  potassic  sulphate. 

Solution  l)est  fitted  for  the  reactions: 

SODIC  CHLORIDE  (NaCl). 

371.  TARTARIC  ACID  or  SODIC  DITARTRATE  produce  no  pre- 
cipitate even  in  concentrated  solutions. 

372.  SILICOFLUORIC  ACID  produces  in  concentrated  solutions 
a  gelatinous  precipitate  of  SODIC  SILICOFLUORIDE  (4NaF.SiF4)  : 


The  potassic  salt  (4KF.SiF4)  is  prepared  in  the  same  way. 

373.  POTASSIC  ACID  METANTIMONIATE  (K2O.Sb205.7H20) 
(sometimes  called  granular  antimonate  of  potassium).  "  This 
salt  may  be  prepared  by  treating  antimonic  trichloride  with 
an  excess  of  potassic  hydrate  sufficient  to  redissolve  the  pre- 
cipitate first  formed,  and  adding  potassic  permanganate  till 
the  solution  acquires  a  faint  rose  color.  The  liquid  filtered 
and  evaporated,  yields  crystals  of  granular  metantiomonate 
(Reynoso).  This  salt  dissolves  readily  in  water  between  45° 
and  50°  C.,  but  sparingly  in  cold  water.  It  must  be  preserved 
in  a  solid  state,  and  only  dissolved  as  required.  When  this 
solution  is  added  to  a  sodic  solution  (if  not  too  dilute),  the 
precipitate  of  SODIC  ACID  METANTIMONIATE  (Na2O.Sb205H-7H20 
or  2NaOH.Sb05  +  6H20)  is  flocculent  at  first,  but  finally  be- 
comes crystalline. 

2NaCl+K2O.Sb205.7H20=Na2O.Sb205.7H20-f2KCl. 

If  the  solution  to  be  examined  contain  1  pt.  of  sodic  salt  in 
300  pts.  of  water,  the  precipitate  is  produced  immediately. 
In  dilute  solutions  the  precipitate  is  gradual,  and  is  deposited 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  133 

as  crystal  on  the  sides  of  the  glass ;  in  solutions  containing 
TtfW  pk  °f  s°dic  salt  the  effect  is  apparent  after  twelve  hours. 
The  presence  of  alcohol  helps  the  precipitation.  Alkali  in  a 
free  state  retards  it,  and  the  presence  of  lithium  and  am- 
monia in  diluted  solution  spoils  the  test ;  as  they  themselves 
form  similar  precipitates,  they  should  first  be  removed,  and 
also  earth  metals  if  present. 

The  solution  to  be  tested  should  be  neutral,  or  slightly  alka- 
line, for  free  acid  would  separate  antimonic  acid  from  the 
potassic  salt. 

374.  PLATINIC   BICHLORIDE  produces  no  precipitate  with 
sodic  solutions. 

SODIC  CHLOROPLATINATE  is  very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 
It  may  be  prepared  by  slowly  evaporating  a  drop  of  sodic 
chloride  with  an  excess  of  platinic  dichloride  on  a  piece  of 
glass,  when  crystals  of  sodic  chloroplatinate  appear,  which 
may  be  seen  sometimes  with  the  eye,  and  readily  by  the  help 
of  a  magnifier. 

375.  FLAME.   Any  sodic  salts  colors  the  outer  blowpipe 
flame  with  a  rich  yellow  color,  which  entirely  destroys  the 
color  produced  by  any  other  metal.     Alcoholic  solutions  of 
sodic  salts  burn  with  a  yellow  flame.     The  sodic  flame  is  char- 
acterized by  its  rendering  a  crystal  of  potassic  dichromate, 
which  is  illuminated  by  its  light  colorless.     Paper  covered 
with  mercuric  iodide  when  seen  by  the  sodic  flame  appears 
yellowish-white  (Bunsen).     Viewed  through  green  glass,  its 
color  is  orange-yellow. — (MERZ.) 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  373,  374,  375. 

AMMONIA. 

Symbol,  NH3. — Molecular  weight,  17. — Molecular  volume,  2. — Density, 
8.5.— One  litre  weighs  0.762  grams  (8.5  criths).— Specific  heat  (H20=l)  is 
0.508  (Regnault).— Specific  gravity,  0.5893  (calculated  by  H.  Davy).— Re- 
fractive power  (air=l)  is  1.309  (Dulong). — Faraday  obtained  solid  ammonia 
by  exposing  the  dry  gas  to  a  pressure  of  20  atmospheres  and  to  a  cold  of 
—75°  C. — It  is  a  white,  transparent,  crystalline  body,  which  melts  at  75°  C. 
and  has  a  higher  specific  gravity  than  ammonia  in  the  liquid  state,  which 


134  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

has  a  specific  gravity,  0.76  ;  boiling  point  at  749  mur.,  barometric  pressure, 
—33.7°  C.  (Bunsen).  —  Its  tension  at  —17.78°  C.  =  2.48  atmospheres;  at 
0°  C.  =  4.44  atm.  ;  at  10.8°  C.  =  6  atm.  ;  at  19.44°  C.  —  7.60  atm.  ;  at  28.31°  C. 
=  10.  atm. 

AMMONIC    HYDRATE. 

When  ammonia  gas  is  passed  into  water  it  is  rapidly  ab- 
sorbed, with  considerable  evolution  of  heat  and  with  great 
expansion. 

"Davy  found  that  1  vol.  water  at  10°  C.  and  29.8  inches  barometric 
pressure  absorbs  670  vols.  ammonia,  or  nearly  half  its  weight  ;  the  specific 
gravity  of  this  solution  is  0.875.  According  to  Dalton,  water  at  even  a 
lower  temperature  absorbs  even  more  ammonia,  and  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  solution  is  0.85.  According  to  Osaun,  100  pts.  water  at  24°  C.  absorbs 
8.41  pts.,  at  55°  C.,  5.96  pts.  ammonia.  1  vol.  water,  by  absorbing  505  vols. 
ammonia,  forms  a  solution  occupying  1.5  vols.,  and  having  a  specific 
gravity  0.9  ;  this,  when  mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  water,  yields  a  liquid 
of  specific  gravity  0.9455,  whence  it  appears  that  aqueous  ammonia  expands 
on  dilution."  —  (URE.) 


AMMONIC    HYDRATE    or    aqueous    ammonia    (NH3 
NH4.OH)  is  a  colorless  transparent  liquid,  smelling  of  ammonia, 
and  having  a  sharp,  burning  taste. 

Its  specific  gravity  varies  from  1.000  to  0.85,  according  to 
amount  of  ammonia  it  contains  ;  its  boiling  point  varies  simi- 
larly. A  perfect  saturated  solution  freezes  between  —38°  C. 
and  —41°  C.,  forming  shining,  flexible  needles  ;  at  —49°  C.  it 
solidifies  to  a  gray  gelatinous  mass  without  smell  (Fourceroy 
and  Yauquelin).  It  lost  almost  all  its  ammonia  at  or  below 
100°  C.  The  following  table,  on  next  page,  shows  the  amount 
of  real  ammonia  contained  in  ammonic  hydrate  of  different 

densities. 

AMMONIC   SALTS. 

When  ammonia  or  ammonic  carbonate  is  brought  in  contact 
with  an  acid,  the  salt  corresponding  to  the  acid  is  directly  pro- 
duced. Ammonic  salts  have  a  pungent,  saline,  bitter  taste. 
They  are  soluble  in  water  generally  with  facility  ;  less  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether.  They  are  colorless  if  their  acids  are 
colorless.  They  are  volatile  at  a  high  temperature  with  or 
without  decomposition. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


135 


DALTON. 

H.  DAVY. 

URE. 

w  >> 

fl 

bo 

!* 

fl 

l£ 

11 

s£ 

"5  o 

"SV 

ga 

^s"a 

"G  *>> 

o  a 

sa 

s 

II 

12 

II 

II 

02  C5 

II 

II 

o  9 

0.85 

35.3 

-4°  C. 

0.8750 

32.3* 

0.8914 

27.940 

0.9363 

15.900 

0.86 

32.6 

+  3.5° 

0.8857 

29.25 

0.8937 

27.633 

0.9410 

14.575 

0.87 

29.9 

10° 

0.9000 

26.00 

0.8967 

27.038 

0.9455 

13.250 

0.88 

27.3 

17° 

0.9054 

25.37* 

0.8983 

26.751 

0.9510 

11.925 

0.89 

24.7 

23° 

0.9166 

22.07 

0.9000 

26.500 

0.9564 

10.600 

0.90 

22.2 

30° 

0.9255 

19.54 

0.9045 

25.175 

09614 

9275 

0.91 

19.8 

37° 

0.9326 

17.52 

0.9090 

23.850 

0.9662 

7.950 

0.92 

17.4 

44° 

0.9385 

15.88 

0.9133 

22.525 

0.9716 

6.625 

0.93 

15.1 

50° 

0.9435 

14.53 

0.9227 

19.875 

0.9768 

5.500 

0.94 

128 

57° 

0.9476 

13.46 

0.9275 

18.550 

0.9828 

3.975 

0.95 

10.5 

63° 

0.9513 

12.40 

0.9320 

17.225 

0.9887 

2.650 

0.96 

8.3 

70° 

0.9545 

11.56 

0.9945 

1.325 

0.97 

6.2 

79° 

0.9573 

10.82 

0.98 

4.1 

87° 

0.9597 

10.17 

0.99 

2.0 

92° 

0.9616 

9.60 

0.9692 

950* 

Solution  lest  fitted  for  the  reactions  : 

AMMONIC  SULPHATE  (NH4)2S04. 

376.  POTASSIO  HYDRATE.  If  a  solution  containing  an  am- 
monic  salt  be  treated  with  potassic  hydrate,  ammonia  is  liber- 
ated : 


The  ammonia  thus  liberated  may  be  detected  by  the  smell, 
or  by  the  fumes  generated  when  a  volatile  acid  is  brought  in 
contact  with  it.  As,  for  example,  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  pro- 

duces  WHITE   FUMES   of  AMMONIC   CHLORIDE  \ 


The  gas  generated  may  be  detected  by  moistened  test-paper. 
Calcic  or  sodic  hydrate  may  be  used  in  place  of  potassic 
hydrate. 
377.  PLATINIC  DICHLORIDE,  when  added  to  a  solution  con- 

*  These  numbers  were  determined  by  experiment ;  the  rest  is  Davy 
table  by  calculation. 


136  '    THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

taining  an  ammonic  salt,  produces  a  yellow  precipitate  of  AM- 

MONIC    CHLOROPLATINATE  [(N  H4Cl)2PtCl4  =  (N  H4)2PtCl6]  I 


NH4C1+  PtCl4^NH4Cl)2.PtCl4. 
)2S04  +  2HCl+PtCl4=(NH4Cl)2+PtCl4  +  H2S04. 

This  precipitate  is  somewhat  lighter  in  color  than  the  cor- 
responding potassic  precipitate.  Where  the  precipitate  is 
ignited  it  is  converted  into  pure  metallic  platinum  perfectly 
free  from  chloride. 

378.  NESSLER'S  TEST.  If  to  a  solution  containing  an  am- 
monic salt,  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  be  added,  and  a  solution  of  MER- 

CURIC     IODIDE     in     POTASSIC     IODIDE,  -&.  J^rOWn    PRECIPITATE     Or 

COLORATION  is  immediately  produced  : 


This  reaction  is  by  far  the  most  delicate  test  for  ammonia. 

379.    SODIC     ACID     TARTRATE    Or    TARTARIC    ACID    produces    a 

white  precipitate  of  ammonic  acid  tartrate  (NH4C4H506): 


(N  H4)2S04  +  2NaC4H506  =  2NH4C4H6Oe  +  Na2S04. 

This  precipitate  is  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  readily  sol- 
uble in  alkaline  solutions  and  mineral  acids.  If  this  precipi- 
tate be  ignited  the  carbonaceous  residue  obtained  will  have  no 
alkaline  reactions. 

380.  SODIC    PHOSPHO-MOLYBDATE     produces    a    YELLOW    PRE- 

CIPITATE, soluble  in  alkalies  and  non-volatile  organic  acids,  but 
insoluble  in  mineral  acids. 

381.  FLAME.     Alcoholic   solutions  of  ammonic  salts  burn 
with  a  blue  or  violet  flame. 

382.  HEATED.     Any  ammonic  salt,  if  heated,  either  alone 
or  with  a  fixed  alkali,  baryta,  lime,  plumbic  oxide,  etc.,  evolve 
ammonia.    Magnesia  expels  only  half  the  ammonia,  forming  a 
double  salt. 

CHARACTERISTIC  REACTIONS,  376,  378,  382. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


137 


SCHEME   FOR  THE    SEPARATION    AND    DETECTION    OF 
MEMBERS   OF   GROUP   V. 

The  solution  to  be  examined  is  supposed  to  contain  a  salt 
of  potassium,  sodium,  and  ammonia. 
Divide  the  solution  into  two  parts : 


FIRST  PART. 

Add  potassic  hydrate 
and  boil,  £nd  test  for 
ammonia  with  hydro- 
chloric acid!,;  also  by 
smell  and  *  test  -paper. 
(See  §376.)  'Test  also 
with  Nessler's  solution. 
(§  378.) 


SECOND  PART. 

If  ammonia  has  been  found  in  "First  Part," 
evaporate  to  dryness  the  "  Second  Part "  to  ex- 
pel all  ammonia.  Dissolve  residue  in  water; 
add  hydrochloric  acid,  then  platinic  dichloride ; 
there  will  be  precipitated  potassic  chloroplati- 
hate  :  filter  and  wash. 


PRECIPITATE. 

K2PtCl6.     (See  §365.) 

Test  as  in  §  368. 


FILTRATE. 

Evaporate  filtrate  to 
dryness;  the  presence  of 
red  circular  crystals  indi- 
cate the  presence  of  a 
sodic  salt.  Add  alcohol, 
and  test  by  flame.  (See 
§375.) 


SCHEME     FOR 

QUALITATIVE    ANALYSIS. 


THE   SUBSTANCE    FOR   EXAMINATION    IS   A   SOLID. 
PRELIMINARY   EXAMINATION.* 

This  consists  in  an  accurate  observation  of  the  physical  prop- 
erties of  the  substance,  its  form,  color,  hardness,  gravity,  and 
odor,  and  of  its  deportment  at  a  high  temperature,  either  alone 
or  in  contact  with  some  chemical  compound  which  produces 
decomposition. 

1.    THE  SUBSTANCE  IS    HEATED  IN  A  DKY  NARROW  TUBE. 


(a).  Organic  compounds  carbonize  and   blacken,  evolving 
empyreumatic,  inflammable  gases. 

*  The  majority  of  the  preliminary  tests  are  taken  from  Manual  of  Chem. 
Anal.,  by  Fred.  Hoffman,  Ph.D. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  139 

(b).  The  substance  remains  unaltered  •  indicating  absence 
of  organic  matter,  of  salts  containing  water  of  crystallization, 
and  of  volatile  compounds. 

(c).  The  substance  fuses,  expelling  aqueous  vapors,  which 
condense  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the  tube ;  indicating  salts  with 
water  of  crystallization  (these  will  generally  re-solidify  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  water)  or  decomposable  hydrates,  which 
often  give  off  their  water  without  fusing. 

(d).  Gases  or  fumes  are  evolved;  smell  of  iodine  from 
iodine  compounds  ;  smell  of  sulphurous  oxide  from  decomposi- 
tion of  sulphates ;  smell  of  nitrogen  oxides  from  the  nitrates ; 
smell  of  ammonia  from  ammonic  salts,  from  cyanides,  or  from 
nitrogenous  organic  compounds,  in  which  latter  case  carboniza- 
tion takes  place,  and  either  cyanogen  or  empyreumatic  fumes 
escape  with  the  ammonia. 

(e).  Sublimates  are  formed  by  volatile  substances,  as  sul- 
phur and  compounds  of  ammonium,  mercury,  arsenic,  and 
antimony.  In  this  case  the  sublimate  is  removed  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  test-tube,  and,  together  with  the  substance,  is 
covered  with  a  few  small  pieces  of  charcoal,  and  again  heated ; 
mercury  and  arsenic  form  metallic  sublimates,  the  latter  with 
the  characteristic  garlic  odor,  the  former  without.  In  another 
tube  part  of  the  substance  is  heated,  and  the  sublimate  is 
moistened  with  solution  of  potassic  hydrate ;  mercurous  chlo- 
ride turns  black;  mercuric  chloride  red;  and  ammonic  salts 
evolve  the  odor  of  ammonia. 

2.  THE  SUBSTANCE  is  MIXED  WITH  DRIED  SODIO  CARBONATE, 

AND    HEATED     ON     CHARCOAL    IN    THE     REDUCTNG-FLAME     OF    THE 
BLOWPIPE. 

(a).  Fusion  and  absorption  into  the  coal  indicates  alkalies. 

(b).  An  infusible  white  residue,  either  at  once  or  after  pre- 
vious fusion  in  the  water  of  crystallization,  indicates  com- 
pounds of  calcium,  barium,  strontium,  magnesium,  aluminium, 
zinc,  or  tin. 

(c).  A  reduction  to  the  metallic  state  takes  place,  without 
formation  of  a  periph eric  incrustation  upon  the  charcoal.  Com- 


140  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

pounds  of  tin,  silver,  and  copper  give  malleable  shining  scales. 
Compounds  of  iron,  manganese,  cobalt,  and  nickel  are  reduced 
to  a  gray  infusible  powder ;  all  visible  upon  cutting  the  fuse 
from  the  coal,  and  triturating  and  levigating  it  in  an  agate 
mortar. 

(d).  deduction  with  incrustation:  Antimony  compounds 
give  a  brittle  metallic  globule  and  a  white  incrustation ;  bis- 
muth, a  brittle  globule  and  a  brown-yellow  incrustation ;  lead, 
a  malleable  globule  and  a  yellow  incrustation ;  zinc  and  cad- 
mium are  reduced,  but  give,  the  former  a  white  incrustation, 
not  volatile  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  the  latter  a  brown-red  in- 
crustation. 

(<?).  Arsenic  compounds  give  the  smell  of  garlic. 

(t/).  Borates  and  aluminates  swell  up. 

(g).  Sulphur  compounds  give  an  alkaline  sulphide,  which,, 
when  moistened,  leaves  a  black  stain  upon  a  clean  piece  of 
silver. 

3.*  FUSE  A  SMALL  PORTION  TOGETHER  WITH  A  BEAD  OP 
MICROCOSMIC  SALT,  AND  EXPOSE  FOR  SOME  TIME  TO  THE  OUTER 
FLAME  OF  THE  BLOWrPIPE. 

(A).  THE  SUBSTANCE  DISSOLVES  READILY,  AND  RATHER 
LARGELY,  TO  A  CLEAR  BEAD  (WHILE  HOT). 

(a).  The  hot  head  is  colored : 

BLUE,  by  candle-light  inclining  to  violet — COBALT. 

GREEN,  upon  cooling,  blue;  in  the  reducing-flame,  after 
cooling,  red — COPPER. 

GREEN,  particularly  fine  on  cooling,  unaltered  in  the  reduc- 
ing-flame— CHROMIUM. 

BROWNISH-RED,  on  cooling,  light-yellow  or  colorless ;  in  the 
reducing-flame,  red  whilst  hot,  yellow  whilst  cooling,  then 
greenish — IRON. 

DARK-YELLOW  to  REDDISH,  turning  lighter  or  altogether  col- 
orless on  cooling ;  in  the  reducing-flame  unaltered — NICKEL. 

YELLOWISH-BROWN,  on  cooling,  changing  to  light-yellow  or 
losing  its  color  altogether;  in  the  reducing-flame  almost  col- 

*  From  "  Qualitative  Analysis,"  Fresenius,  1870,  p.  252. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  141 

orless  (especially  after  addition  of  a  very  little  tin-foil),  blackish- 
gray  on  cooling — BISMUTH. 

BRIGHT-YELLOWISH  TO  OPAL,  when  cold,  somewhat  turbid ; 
in  the  reducing-flame,  whitish-gray — SILVER. 

AMETHYST-RED,  especially  on  cooling;  colorless  in  the  re- 
ducing-flame, not  quite  clear — MANGANESE. 

(^).   The  hot  head  is  colorless  : 

IT    REMAINS    CLEAR    ON    COOLING  I     ANTIMONY,    ALUMINA,    ZINC, 

CADMIUM,  LEAD,  LIME,  MAGNESIA  ;  the  latter  five  metals,  when 
added  in  somewhat  large  proportion  to  the  microcosmic  salt, 
give  enamel  white  beads ;  the  bead  of  oxide  of  lead  is  yellow- 
ish when  saturated. 

IT  BECOMES  ENAMEL-WHITE  ON  COOLING,  even  when  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  powder  has  been  added  to  the  microcosmic 

Salt BARYTA,  STRONTIA. 

(&).  THE  SUBSTANCE  DISSOLVES  SLOWLY  AND  ONLY  IN  SMALL 
QUANTITY  : 

(a).  The  bead  is  colorless,  and  remains  so  even  after  cooling ; 
the  undissolved  portion  looks  semi-transparent ;  upon  addition 
of  a  little  ferric  oxide,  it  acquires  the  characteristic  color  of  an 
iron  bead — SILICIC  ACID. 

(&).  The  bead  is  colorless,  and  remains  so  after  the  addition 
of  a  little  ferric  oxide — TIN. 

(c).  THE  SUBSTANCE  DOES  NOT,  DISSOLVE,  BUT  FLOATS  (iN  THE 
METALLIC  STATE)  IN  THE  BEAD — GOLD,  PLATINUM. 

"  As  the  body  under  examination  may  consist  of  a  mixture  of  the  most 
dissimilar  elements,  it  is  impossible  to  give  well-defined  cases  that  shall  offer 
at  the  same  time  the  advantage  of  general  applicability.  If,  therefore^eac- 
tions  are  observed  in  an  experiment  which  proceed  from  a  combinaHki  of 
two  of  several  cases,  the  conclusions  drawn  from  these  reactions  mrret  of 
course  be  modified  accordingly." — (FRESENIUS.) 

4.  DISSOLVE  A  PORTION  OF  THE  FINELY  POWDERED  SUB- 
STANCE IN  H20,  AND  FILTER: 

If  not  soluble  in H20,  dissolve  in HC1. 

«••«•         «        « HC1,        "        " HN03. 

«    «         «        "   .  .  .  .    Hf03,        "        "    (3HC1+HN03). 
«    "         "       "(3HC1+HN03),  it  must  be  rendered  sftuble 


142 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


by  other  means.  This  is  generally  accompanied  by  fusion  with 
three  to  four  parts  by  weight  of  alkaline  carbonates,  in  the  case 
of  baric,  strontic,  calcic,  and  plumbic  sulphate,  and  also  of  silicic 
oxide  and  silicates,  or  by  fusion  with  hydropotassic  sulphate 
in  the  case  of  aluminic  oxide  or  aluminates.* 

H20   SOLUTION. 

Test  with  red  and  blue  litmus-paper.  Add  HC1.  If  solu- 
tion was  acid,  the  precipitate  may  be  either  PbCl2,  AgCl,  or 
Hg2Cl2.  If  solution  was  alkaline,  it  may  be  either  2SbCl3. 
5Sb203,  Sn02.H20,  H4Si04,  etc.  Filter  if  precipitate  forms. 
Add  to  filtrate  H2S;  if  precipitate  is  produced,  saturate  the 
liquid  with  H2S  gas  and  precipitate  PbS,  CuS,  HgS,  CdS,  Bi2S3, 
As2Sx,  Sb2Sx,  SnSx,  Au2S3,  PtS2.  Filter  and  wash;  test  accord- 
infto  Grou  II. 


ACTUAL  ANALYSIS. 

SUBSTANCE  to  be  examined  is  soluble  in  water;  also  such 
as  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  HC1,  HN03,  (3HCL 
HNOA  . 

GROUP   I. 

SCHEME   FOR   DETECTING. 
Ag.  salts. — Hg2  salts. — Pb  salts. 

Add  HC1.  Free.  =  AgCl  +  Hg2Cl2  +  PbCl2.  ^V^ 

Filter  and  wash ;  lay  filtrate  one  side  to  be  further  treated 
(as  in  Group  II).     No  precipitate ;  pass  on  to  Group  II. 
Boil  precipitate  in  H20  and  filter. 


FILTRATE. 


dilute    H2SO4,    which    will 


RESIDUE. 


AddNH4OH  and  filter. 


JJ1  Capita  LC      1    U\J\j£.          ^>JCC    Vj£J   j.Uj    *»•) 

SOLUTION. 

RESIDUE. 

Add   HN03 

If    black     (see 

which  will    pre- 

§ 32).       Dissolve 

cipitate         AgCl. 

in   (3HC1.HNC3). 

(See  §  5.) 

Add    SnCl3  and 

4 

| 

boil  ;  Hg  precipi- 
tated.   (See  §  38.) 

*  See  Scheme  i'or  Analysis  of  Insoluble  Substances. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


143 


HS 


GROUP   II. 
SCHEME    FOR   DETECTING. 

Pb,  Cu,  Bi,  Hg,  Cd,  As,  Sb,  Sn,  Au,  Pt. 
Add  to  filtrate  from  Group  I  (after  testing  with  HC1 
until  filtrate  smells  distinctly  of  the  reagent;  filter 
precipitate  (after  passing  H2S  gas  through  solution);  wash  it. 
Lay  filtrate  aside  (test  according  to  Group  III).  If  no  pre- 
cipitate forms,  pass  on  to  Group  III.  The  precipitate  may  be  : 
PbS,  CuS,  Bi2S3,  HgS,  CdS,  As2Sx,  Sb2Sx,  SnSx,  Au2Sd:,  PtS2. 


Add  yellow  NH4ns,  warm  geim) 

f  aiiu  iiiiui. 

• 

RESIDUE. 

SOLUTION. 

j«^_ 

PbS,  CuS,  Bi2S3,  HgS,  CdS. 
Wash   well   to    remove    Cl.    (Test 
with  AgNO3.)    - 
Boil  prec.  with  HNO3,;  filter;  wash. 

As2Sx,  Sb2Sx,  SnSx,  Au2S3,  PtS3.fl 
Add  dilute  H2SO4  ;  there  is  precipitated^BBs3 
+  Sb2S3  +  SnS2  +  Au.,S:i  +  PtS2  +  S. 
Filter  and  wash  ;  dissolve  in  HC1  aud£C!O3  by 
gentle  heat  (  AsCl,  +  SbCl3  +  SnCl4  +  Au($+  PtCl*. 

KESIDUE. 

SOLUTION. 

divide  in  two  parts. 

HgS  +  S 

Pb,  Cu,  Bi,  Cd. 

(black).  Dis- 
iolve  in 

Add     dilute      H,SO4, 
cone.  sol.  to  expel  HN.O  ,, 

IST  PART. 
Test  this  nortion  for 

2D  PART. 

Test    this    portion    for 

3Hqi.HNO3 

Add  H2O  and  filter. 

^j7~  As,  Sit 

v  Sn. 

Au 

,  Pt. 

and  boil 
with  SnCl2 
Prec.=Hg. 

RESIDUE. 
PbS04. 

SOLUTION. 
Cu,  Bi,  Cd. 

Concentrate  ;    introduce 
some  into  flask  contain  - 
no-  Zn  +  H2O  +  H2SO4. 

Divide  in  ha 
1st  Half. 

Ives. 
8d  Half. 

(See  §  43.) 

(See  §  21.) 

Add 
NH4OH 

and  filter. 

See  §§  132,  102.    Pass  gas 
generated  into    AgNOs. 

Add  HC1, 
then  FeSO4 
and  boil. 

Add  NH5C1. 
Evaporate  to 
dryness  over 

PRECIPI-                 FILTRATE. 

;er  :  wash. 

Prec.  equal 
Au.    (See 

water  bath  ; 
treat  with 

TATE. 

Cu,  Cd. 

PRECIPI- 

FILTRATE. 

§  191.) 

alcohol. 

"Ri  O    TT  O 

TATE. 

Add 

Ova  n  o-A-r  A/1 

JDI  2  \J  3  .  Jtl  2  \J. 

Wash.    Dis- 
solve in  HC1 

IST  PART.     2o  PART. 

Wash  well; 
introduce 

AgNO.,. 

Neutralize 

residue  is  (NHic!fa7ptci« 
indicates  Pi.    (See  §  182.) 

Add  KCN 

witli  dilute 

L 

test.    (§  90.) 

AClClUltllc 

with  acetic 

to  destroy 

filter  und 
precipitate 

NH4OH  ;  a  yellow  prec 

.  =  Ag4As2O5. 

acid.    Add 

blue  color  ; 

in  a  test- 

(See  §§  99,  107.) 

precipitate 

HA  which 

tartaric  acid  and  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  filter  (resi- 

is Cu2Cfy. 
(See  §  (50.) 

will  precipi- 
tate CdS. 

due  Ag).    Add  H2S  and  boil  ;  an  orange-  red  prec.  = 
Sb2S3.    (See  §126.)                _               _^^^^_ 

(See  §*70.) 

DETECTION  OP  TIN.     Detach  tin 

flask  hv  ap-Hation.  then  transfer  the 

:  to  anotlu" 

Hg2Cl2' ;  boil.    Hg  is  precipitated,  which  indicates  Sn.    (See  §  160.) 

GROUP   III. 

SCHEME    FOR    DETECTING. 
A1203,  Cr203,  ZnO,  CoO,  I^^MnO,  FeO,  Fe203,    Append|| 

Add  to  filtrate  from 
NH4C1  + NH4OH  (until  alk 


§MnO 
n 
)+N 


II   (after  testing  wi2S) 
j)  +  N  H4H S.     Filter  oif 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


cipitate.     Lay  %  filtrate  to  one  side  to  be  tested  according  to 
Group  IV.     If  no  precipitate  forms,  pass  on  to  Group  IY. 
The  precipitate  may  be  :     , 


#  NiS+MnS.xH20. 

Wash,  and  dissolve  in  the  funnel  with  HC1,  then  wash  again. 


There  will  be  a 
RESIDUE. 

CoS  +  NiS  +  S. 
Wash  well   and  treat 
with  borax  bead    (note 
color).     (See  §§  277,  292.) 
precipitate,  paper 
ill,  in  porcelain  cru- 
,  dissolve  residue  in 
JO,  dilute,  filter, 
te    to    a    few 
dd  acetic  acid 
Filter  off 


SOLUTION. 


Adda  few  crystals  of  KC1O,  and  boil  to  destroy  H2S  and  to 
change  FeO  to  Fe2O3.  Add  an  excess  of  KOH.  Filter  off  pre- 
cipitate and  wash. 


FILTRATE. 
Some  Zn,  Al,  Cr. 
Boil ;     a     precipitate 
s  Cr20;,5H20.     Filter; 
test  with   bead. 
216,  219.) 
.e  filtrate  in  two 


See 
Dh 


parts. 

IST  PART. 
Add  H2S  or 
NH4HS ;  a 

precipitate 

isZnS.H2O. 

(See  §§  226, 

227.)    Test 

according 

to  §233. 


2D  PART. 
Add  HC1, 

then 
NH.OH:  a 


PRECIPITATE. 

Fe,  Mn,  Appendix  (Zn,  Cr?). 
Divide  in  two  parts. 


IST  PART. 
Dissolve  in    HC1 
divide  in  halves. 


and 


(See 

cording  to 
§  208. 


1st  Half. 
Test  a  por- 
tion with 
KCNS ; 
color  deep 
I  blood -red, 
indicates 
ron.    (See 


another 

portion 

with  potas 

sic  ferrocy- 

anicle.    (See 

§256.) 


%d  Half. 

Add  Tar- 
taric  acid, 

then  an 

excess  of 
NH4HO;  a 


2o  PART. 
Divide  in  two 
parts  :  a  and  /?. 
1st  a.  Dis- 
solve in  warm 
HC1.  Add 

Nn,CO3, 
NH4OH      and 
BaC03;  shake 
well ;    a    pre- 


Filter  and 
wash,  and 


phates  and  oxa 
and  filter. 


alate 


of  phos- 
s  of  Ca,  Ba,  Sr,  Mg.    Dissolve  precipitate  IB  acetic  acid 


FILTRATE. 
Divide  in  two  parts. 


IST  PART. 


part 
to  a 


lent    pale 
precipitate     indi- 


cates presence  of  acj,j 
phosphoric  acid. 


SD  PART. 
Add  Fe2Cl6  and 


sodic 


acetate. 


RESIDUE 


Ibssic 

Hi     'Filter, 
trce*   The'SK.O 
ATOendix  !tratei 
wi  Consist  NH'H 

will  show  the 
presence       of 
Mn  by  a  pre- 
cipitate 
MnS.xHoO. 


with 
salt, 
add 
to  fil- 
th en 
5,  which 


Warm  gently  and  filter. 

PRECIPITATE. 
Fe203.P205=FeP04. 


[See  §  298.) 

2fi.  /?.    Fuse 
on  Pt  foil  with 

vescence  of  CO2  indicates  the  pres-  NaNOs       and 

Na.,C03.       If 
green,    Mn   is 
resent.     (See 
311.)      Dis- 
solve   residue 


Consists  of  oxalates.    Wash  dry  and 
ignite.    Dissolve  in  dilute  HC1.   Effer- 


ence  of  phosphoric  acid. 


the  presence  of  phosphoric 


FILTRATE 
Will  contain  Ba,  Sr,  Ca,  Mg. 


White  powder.    Indicates  Test  according  to  Group  IV. 


in     H2O     and 

filter. 


SOLUTION. 
Cr,    Mn,    Zn. 
Add  acetic  acid  and  divide. 


Add  jriuabic  ace- 
taic  :  a  yellow  precipi- 
tate i^^K>4-  (See 
lasi  part  of  §  216.) 


M  Half. 
Add  alcohol ;  boil  :| 
filter  if  necessary;' 
then  add  H2S ;  a  pre- 
cipitate is  ZnS.H2O. 
(See  §  226.) 


RESIDUE. 
Mn,    Fe,    Zn. 

Dissolve  in  HC1.  Add  KOH  in  excess, 
add  to  filtrate  H2S;  a  precipitate  is 
aO.  (See  §226.) 


his  filtrate  maybe  tested  for  any  of  the 
metals  of  this  Group. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


GROUP    IV. 


U5 


SCHEME    FO^  DETECTING 

^  *. 

Ba,   Sr,  Ca,   Mg.  < 

Add  to  filtrate  from  Group  III  (after  testing  with  NH4HS), 
N  H4C1  +  N  H40 H  +  (N  H4)2C03  ;  a  precipitate  is  produced ;  filter 
and  wash. 

If  no  precipitate  is  produced,  pass  on  to  Group  Y. 

FILTRATE. 


PRECIPITATE. 
BaC03  +  SrC03  +  CaCO3. 
Dissolve  in  HC1 ;  add  sodic  acetate, 
then  K3Cr2O7;  a  yellow  precipitate 
is  produced ;  filter. 

PRECIPITATE. 
BaCrO.   '(See  §  321.) 


Mg. 

Add  NaHP04  ;  a  precipitate 
(P04)8.7H2O.     (See  §357.) 

FILTRATE. 

Add  to  a  portion  of  fi 
anci^wait  ten  minutes,  if  a  precipitate 
forms.  Add  to  the  remaining  portion 
K2S04 ;  a  precipitate  is  produced; 
filter  and  wash  thoroughly. 


\TE. 


PRECIPITA1: 

SrS04.    (See  §§  331,  335.) 


acic 


FILTRATE. 

Add  NH,OH  and  oxalic  acid;  a 
whi^precipitate  is  CaC204.  (See 
§§  34C346,  342.) 


I 


GROUP  V. 

SCHEME    FOR    DETECTING 
NH. 


3,  K,  Na. 
Divide  a  portion  of  the  original  solution  in  two 

SECOND  PART. 

If  ammonia  has  been  found  in  "First 
Part,"  evaporate  to  dryness  the  "  Sec- 
Part"  to    expel    all 

t  as  salts).      Dig 
2O;  add  HC1,  then 
^^^^^  pitate  forms ;  filter 
10 


FIRST  PART.  * 

Add  KOH  and  boil  ;  test  gas  with 
HC1  ;  smell,  and  try  test-- 

§376.) 

Test  also  with  Nessler's  sfl 
(See  §378.) 


* 


146 


PTHE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


K,PtCl,. 
§368. 


PRECIPITATE. 
(See  §  365.)    Test  as  in 


»  FILTRATE. 

Evaporate  filtrate  to  dryness;  the 
presence  of  red  circular  crystals  indi- 
cates the  presence  of  Na.  Add  alco- 
hol, and  test  by  flame.  (See  §  375.) 
May  also  test  with  K2O.Sb805.7H30. 
(See  §  373.) 


INSOLUBLE   SUBSTANCES. 
^SCHEME   FOR  THEIR    DETECTION. 

Si02,  Silicates,   BaS04,   PbS04,   SrS04,   Sn02,  Cr03. 


borax  bead  —  green=O203.  Fuse  part  of  insoluble 
pe  with  Na2C03  on  charcoal  with  reducing  flame,  then 
put  Bm  a  bright  silver  coin  when  cold,  and  moisten  with 
water  ;^a  small  black  spot  on  silver,  after  standing,  indicates 
S^>hl^  Wash  the  fused  mass  a  little,  then  grind  to  a  powder, 
and  carefully  look  for  metallic  scales—  Pb(S04).  Boil  original 
substance  with  NH4C2H302,  and  filter  adPwash. 


I 


Con 


SOLUTION. 
.tains  the  Pb(S04  ?). 


Sen 


XLUTION. 

Acidulate  with  H  Cl ;  evaporate  to 
^^^isten  with  HC1;  dissolve 


Fuse  some  with  Na2Co3  on  char- 
coal; metallic  gloj3iile=Sn.  Black 
spot  on  silver  coifcBaS04  +  SrS04. 
Fuse  some  of  residue  on  Pt  foil  with 
Na2C03  ;  boil  with  water  and  filter. 

RESIDUE. 

Dissolve  in  HC1 ;  evaporate  to  dry- 
ness  ;  moisten  with  H  Cl ;  dissolve  in 
H20  and  filter. 


Test  for  H2S04 
with  BaCl2. 

RESIDUE. 
Test  for   SnO2 
with  phosphorous 
bead. 

SOLUTION. 
Ba,  Sr.    Test  ac- 
cording to  Group 
IV. 

RESIDUE.    .'  . 

Test  for    Si02 
with  phosphorous 
bead. 

* 


I 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  14T 

* 

* 

DETECTION    OF  THE   INORGANIC  AND  ORGANIC 

ACIDS   IN   SUBSTANCES  SOLUTE  IN  WATER, 

SULPHURIC  ACID  (H2S04). 

Add  baric  chloride  to  a  portion  of  the  original  solution  [if 
Pb.Ag.  or  Hg2  salt  have  been  found,  add  Ba(N03)2],  which,  if 
acid,  first  make  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  with  NH4OH.  If 
a  precipitate  forms,  add  HC1;  if  it  does  not  dissolve,  sulphuric 
acid  (Hf604)  is  present. 

H2S04+BaCl2=BaS04  +  2HCl. 

To  detect  free  H2S04  in  presence  of  a  sulphate, 
fluid  under  examination  with  a  very  little  cane-s 
evaporate  to  dryness  at  212°  F.  If  free  H2S04  waS*preHK,  a 
black  residue  remains,  or  in  the  case  of  most  mini^fc  quan- 
tities, a  blackish-green  residue.  Other  Jpe  acids  do  not  de- 
compose cane-sugar  in  this  way. — (RuNGE.) 

HYDROCHLORIC  (HC1);  HYDROBROMIC  (HBr);  HYDRIODIC  (HI); 
HYDROCYANIC  (HCN);  HYDROFERROCYANIC  (H4FeIrCy*^LHY- 
DROFERRICYANIC  [H6(Fe2)VICy)2] ;  and  SULPHUR.  m 

Add  to  a  portion  of  the  original  solution  argentic  nitrate 
(AgN03)  ;  there  will  be  precipitated: 

AgCl  +  AgBr  +  Agl  +  AgCy  +  Ag4FeCy6  +  Ag6F^y ,  2. 
Observe  the  color  of  the  precipitate : 

AgCl,  AgBr,  AgCy,  Ag4FeCy6  are  white precipi^M 

Agl  is  a  yellow  precipitate. 

Ag6Fe2Cy,2  is  a  brownish-red  precipitate. 

Add  HN03  to  the  precipitate  and  shake  it;  if  it  does  not 
dissolve,  one  or  all  of  the  above  acids  may  be  present.  If  the 
precipitate  is  blackish,  this  points  to  hydrosulphuric  acid  or  a 
soluble  metallic  sulphide.  ^tolphur  may  easily  be 
testing  a  fresh  solution  \\^IBS04. 

If  hydrosulphuric  acid  VBpgnt  in  the  solution  to 


148  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

I 

it  must  first  be  removed  by  boiling.  Alkaline  sulphides  must 
be  removed  by  a  j^tallic  salt,  such  as  will  not  precipitate 
any  of  the  other  ^SRls,  or  at  least  will  not  precipitate  them 
from  acid  solutions. 

HYDRIODIC  ACID  (HI)  and  HYDROCYANIC  ACID  (HCN),  in  the 
presence  of  hydrochloric  or  hydrobromic  acid,  may  be  detected, 
viz.  :  The  HYDRIODIC  ACID  solution  is  mixed  with  some  thin 
clear  starch-paste,  then  made  distinctly  acid  with  dilute  H2S04 
or  HC1,  and  a  drop  or  two  of  a  concentrated-solution  of  jpotassic 
nitrate  (KN02)  is  then  added,  when  the  starch  iodide,  blue 
color,  makes  its  appearance ;  if  the  hydriodic  acid  present  is 
verff*  dilute,  the  fluid  turns  reddish  instead  of  blue.  This  re- 
actj^fcts  more  delicate  when  the  solution  is  quite  cold. 

The  HYDROCYANIC  ACID  solution  (or  the  solution  containing 
it)  is  xnJKed  with  ferrous  sulphate,  which  has  been  exposed  to 
the  air  for  a  while ;  then  potassic  hydrate  is  added,  when  a 
bluish-green  precipitate  forms,  which  consists  of  prussian  blue 
and  ferric  hydrate.  Heat,  then  add  HC1,  when  the  hydrate 
will  dissolve  and  leave  prussian  blue  undissolved.  If  hydro- 
cyan^yicid  is  present  in  only  minute  quantities,  the  fluid 
ply  appears  green  after  adding  HCl,  and  it  is  only  after 
long  standing  that  a  small  precipitate  falls. 

For  the  detection  of  HYDROCHLORIC  and  HYDROBROMIC  ACID, 
hydrocyani^fend  hydriodic  acid  must  be  removed.  All  the 
radicals  present  in  the  solution  to  be  tested  must  be  con- 
verte^^nto  silver  salts  and  ignited.  The  argentic  cyanide 
wiJ^^^W)y  be  decomposed,  leaving  the  argentic  chloride, 
bi^^^^Bnd  iodide  unaltered.  The  residue  is  then  fused 
with  Na2C03  +  K20,  then  boiled  with  H20;  sodic  and  potas- 
sic chloride,  bromide,  and  iodide  are  then  in  solution  ;  or 
the  fused  silver  salts  may  be  easily  decomposed  by  means 
of  zinc  and  H2S04,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand  for  some 
time.  The  solution,  containing  the  soluble  zincic  chloride, 
bromide,  or  iodide,  is  filtered  oiitftom  the  metallic  silver.  If 
to  the  , mixed  sodic  or  zincic  s^^^p  solution  of  one  part  of 
cupr^HMphate  and  two  and  affll^parts  of  ferrous  sulphate 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  149 

be  added,  the  sodic  or  zincic  iodide  will  be  decomposed  and 
cuprous  iodide  (Cu2l2)  will  be  precipitated  as  a  dirty- white 
precipitate.  The  addition  of  a  little  ammonic  hydrate  helps 
the  complete  precipitation. 

From  HYDROBKOMIC  ACID,  hydriodic  acid  is  separated  most 
accurately  by  palladious  chloride,  which  only  precipitates  the 
hydriodic  acid  as  palladious  iodide.  From  hydrochloric  it  is 
separated  by  palladious  nitrate. 

HYDKOBROMIC  ACID,  in  presence  of  hydriodic  acid  and  hydro- 
chloric acid,  may  be  detected,  viz. :  "  Mix  the  fluid  with  a  few 
drops  of  dilute  H2S04,  then  with  some  starch-paste,  and  add  a 
little  red  fuming  nitric  acid  or,  better  still,  a  solution  of  hypo- 
nitric  acid  in  sulphuric  acid,  whereupon  the  iodine  rej^ion 
will  show  itself  immediately.  Add  now  chlorine  water^Irop 
by  drop,  until  that  reaction  has  disappeared;  and  then  add 
some  more  chlorine  water  to  set  the  bromine  also  free,  which 
may  then  be  separated  and  identified,"  viz. :  The  substance  to 
be  examined  is  placed  in  a  test-tube,  and  a  little  carbonic  di- 
sulphide  or  chloroform  is  added,  which  gathers  as  a  globule  at 
the  bottom ;  dilute  chlorine  water  is  then  added  drop  bydrop, 
the  whole  being  agitated.  When  bromine  is  present  'W  con- 
siderable quantities  (e.  g.,  1  of  bromine  to  1000  of  water),  the 
globule  acquires  a  reddish-yellow  color;  with  very  minute 
quantities  (e.  g.,  1  of  bromine  to  30,000  of  water),  it  still  has  a 
perceptible  pale-yellow  tint. 


«, 
3 


HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 

Hydrochloric  acid  may  be  said  to  be  present 
traces  of  iodine  and  bromine  have  been  found ;  if  the^re'cipi- 
tate  by  argentic  nitrate  is  quite  large,  and  is  not  soluble  in- 
nitric  acid. 

METALLIC   CHLORIDE. 

Metallic  chlorides  are  detected  in  the  presence  of  metallic 
bromides,  viz. :  The  metaU|*chlorides  and  bromides  are  trit- 
urated with  potassic  eliminate,  the  mixture  treated  wjfc  sul- 
phuric acid  in  a  tubulated  retort,  and  a  gentle  heat  applied ; 


150  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

a  deep  brownish-red  gas  is  evolved,  which  condenses  into  a 
fluid,  and  passes  over  into  the  receiver.  If  this  distillate  is 
mixed  with  ammonic  hydrate  in  excess,  if  a  metallic  chloride 
is  present,  a  yellow  tint  is  imparted  to  the  liquid  by  the  am- 
monic chromate  which  forms  ;  upon  the  addition  of  an  acid, 
the  color  of  the  solution  changes  to  a  reddish-yellow,  owing  to 
the  formation  of  ammonic  dichromate.  In  the  case  of  a  metal- 
lic bromide,  the  distillate  does  not  turn  yellow,  but  becomes 
colorless  upon  supersaturation  with  ammonic  hydrate. 

NITRIC   ACID  (HN03). 

If  ferrous  sulphate  is  added  very  carefully  to  a  solution  con- 
taining a  nitrate  (with  the  same  volume  of  pure  sulphuric  acid 
as  the  nitrate),  so  that  the  fluids  do  not  mix,  the  stratum, 
where  the  two  fluids  are  in  contact,  shows  a  purple,  afterward 
a  brown,  or  in  cases  where  only  minute  quantities  of  nitric 
acid  are  present,  a  reddish  color.  If  the  fluids  are  mixed,  a 
clear  brownish-purple  liquid  is  obtained. 

CHLORIC   ACID  (HC103). 

When  sulphuric  acid  is  poured  into  a  solution  containing  a 
chlorate  (as,  for  example,  potassic  chlorate),  there  will  be  pro- 
duced potassic  perchlorate  (KC104),  potassic  hydrosulphate 
(KHS04)  ;  and  a  bright  yellow  gas,  perchloric  oxide  (C1204),  is 
evolved  : 


This  gas  has  an  aromatic  odor,  and  colors  the  solution  yel- 
low. If  the  solution  be  heated  (which  should  be  done  with 
only  a  small  quantity,  and  with  a  great  deal  of  care),  a  crack- 
ing sound  occurs. 

PHOSPHORIC   ACID  (H3P04). 

Add  to  the  solution  suppose^Jk)  contain  phosphoric  acid, 
ammonic  hydrate  in  excess,  then  ammonic  chloride,  and  then 
magnesic  sulphate  ;  there  will  be  precipitated  ammonio-mag- 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  151 

nesian  phosphate  (NH4)2Mg2P208.     The  precipitate  is  white, 
and  if  kept  in  a  warm  place  (not  too  hot)  it  subsides  quickly. 

If  a  solution  containing  phosphoric  acid  be  added  drop  by 
drop  to  a  solution  of  ammonic  molybdate  in  nitric  acid,  there 
is  formed  in  the  cold,  either  immediately  or  after  the  lapse  of 
some  time,  &  pulverulent  pale-yellow  precipitate,  which  gathers 
on  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  tube.  If  the  phosphoric  acid 
is  only  present  in  quantity  (0.0002  grm.),  it  is  necessary  to 
heat  gently  (not  above  100°  F.),  and  to  wait  a  few  hours.  ( 

OXALIC   ACID  (C2H204).—  HYDROFLUORIC  ACID  (HF). 

Add  ammonic  hydrate,  then  calcic  chloride  ;  if  a  precipitate 
is  produced,  add  acetic  acid;  if  not  dissolved,  test  a  portion  of 
the  original  solution  by  adding  some  finely-pulverized  man- 
ganese dioxide  and  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  for  OXALIO 
ACID.  If  present,  a  lively  effervescence  ensues,  caused  by 
escaping  carbonic  oxide  : 


Test  another  portion  of  the  original  substance  for  HYDKOFLTJ- 
OEIC  ACID.  Mix  together  the  substance  to  be  tested  with  sul- 
phuric acid  (so  that  a  thin  paste  is  made)  in  a  platinum 
crucible,  and  cover  with  a  watch-glass  which  has  been  coated 
on  the  convex  side  with  bees-  wax,  and  a  few  marks  made 
with  a  pin  through  the  wax  to  the  glass  ;  fill  the  concave  side 
with  water,,  and  heat  the  crucible  gently  for  an  hour  or  so, 
when  the  marks  made  by  the  pin  will  be  etched  into  tjie  glass 
by  the  action  of  the  hydrofluoric  acid  evolved,  and  the  marks 
will  not  be  removed  by  washing. 

BORACIC  ACID  (H3B03). 

Add  to  a  portion  of  the  original  solution,  hydrochloric  acid 
until  distinct  acid  reaction  ;  then  dip  a  slip  of  turmeric  paper 
in  the  solution  ;  then  dry  the  paper  at  112°  F.,  when,  if  boracic 
acid  was  present,  the  paper  will  show  a  peculiar  red  tint 


152  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

(H.  Rose).  If  this  peculiar  red-tinted  paper  be  moistened 
with  an  alkali  or  alkaline  carbonate,  its  color  passes  into 
bluish  or  greenish-black.  Hydrochloric  acid  restores  the  red 
tint  (A.  Yogel;  H.  Ludwig).  Malvern  W.  lies,  Ph.B.,  has 
discovered  what  may  be  called  the  most  reliable  test  for 
boracic  acid  and  borates  known.  It  consists  in  simply  dipping 
a  platinum-wire  in  glycerine,  then  into  the  finely-powdered 
substance,  and  then  holding  the  same  in  a  gas  flame,  when  the 
flame  will  be  colored  green.  By  this  method  boracic  acid  has 
been  detected  in  substances  when,  by  all  other  tests,  its  pres- 
ence could  not  be  demonstrated. 

SILICIC  ACID  (H4Si04). 

This  acid  has  probably  been  found  already.  Evaporate 
some  of  original  substance  with  hydrochloric  acid  to  dry  ness ; 
moisten  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  dissolve  in  water.  If 
Si02  remains,  silicic  acid  is  present.  (Phosphorous  bead.) 

CHROMIC  ACID  (H2Cr04). 

The  yellow  or  red  color  of  the  original  solution,  or  the 
purple-red  color  of  the  precipitate  produced  by  argentic 
nitrate,  points  to  the  presence  of  chromic  acid.  If  there  re- 
mains any  doubt,  add  plumbic  acetate  to  a  portion  of  the 
original  solution  acidified  with  acetic  acid,  when  basic  plumbic 
chromate  will  be  precipitated  (Pb2Cr05  =  2PbO.Cr03). 

ORGANIC  ACIDS. 

Before  testing  for  organic  acid,  remove,  first,  Group  I,  II, 
III,  according  to  Scheme,  as  their  presence  might  disturb  the 
reactions. 

Make  a  portion  of  the  fluid  from  which  Group  I,  II,  III 
have  been  removed  slightly  alkaline  by  adding  NH4OH  ;  add 
some  NH4C1,  then  CaCl,  and  shake  vigorously,  and  let  the 
mixture  stand  at  rest  for  some  minutes  (ten  to  twenty). 

A  precipitate  forms ;  filter. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


153 


PRECIPITATE. 

FILTRATE. 

Digest  and  shake  the  pre- 

Add some  more  calcic  chloride,  then  add  alcohol.    A  pre- 

cipitate with  NaHO  ;    dilute 
with  water  ;  filter,  and  boil  fil- 

cipitate forms  ;  filter. 

trate  for  some  time.    If  a  pre- 

PRECIPITATE. 

FILTRATE. 

cipitate  seoarates,  TARTARIC 

Wash  with  some  alcohol, 

Heat  to  expel  alcohol,  neu- 

AciDtC^HsOa) maybeassumed 

dissolve  on  filter  with  HC1  ; 

tralize  exactly  with  HC1,  nnd 

to  be  present.    Pour  over  the 
precipitated  calcic  tartrate 
NH*OH  in  a  test-tube,  then 
add  AgNO3,  and  heat,  when 
pulverulent  metallic  silver 

add  NH,OH  to  feeble  alka- 
line reaction,  and  boil  for 
some  time.    A  heavy  white 
precipitate  forms  ;  filter. 

addFe.2C!8.    If  a  light-brown 
flocculent  precipitate  is  pro- 
duced,   filter,     digest,    and 
heat-the  washed  precipitate 
with*    NH4OH     in    excess; 

will  separate. 

PRECIPITATE. 

FILTRATE. 

filter,  evaporate  filtrate  near- 

Calcic cit- 

Add  alcohol 

ly  to  dryness,  and  divide  in 

trate  dissolve 

again,  which 

halves. 

in  HC1;   add 
NH4OH,  and 

will  precipi- 
tate calcic 

1ST  HALF. 

2D  HALF. 

boil;  if  calcic 

malate  ;  dis- 

Add alcohol 

Add  hydro- 

citrate is  pre- 

solve in  acetic 

and  baric 

chloric  acid, 

cipitated 

acid  ;  add  al- 

chloride; a 

when  BEN- 

again,  CIT- 

cohol, and 

white  precipi- 

ZOIC ACID 

RIC   ACID 

filter  if  neces- 

tate will  con- 

(C7HB02) will 

(C6H807)  is 

sary.      The 

sist  of  baric 

be  precipi- 

present. 

filtrate  is  pre- 

succinate, 

tated  as  a  daz- 

cipitated with 

BaC4H,04, 

zling  white 

tate,  and  neutralized  with  ammonic  hydrate  ;  wash  precip- 

cates the  pres- 

sparkling 
powder. 

itate;    stir  in  water  decomposed  by  H2S,  and  evaporate 

ence  of  suc- 

u  Benzoic  acid 

filtrate  to  dryness. 
The  malic  acid  thus  obtained,  if  heated  in  a  glass  tube,  is 

CITR1C  ACID 

* 

may  generally 
be  detected 

converted  into  maleic  add  (C4H4O«),  which  will  condense 

by  pouring  a 

to  crystals  in  the  colder  part  of  the  tube.    This  indicates 

little  hydro- 

the presence  of  MALIC  ACID  (C«H6O5). 

chloric  acid 
over  the  orier- 

inal  solution,  when  the  benzoic  acid  will  remain  undissolved ;  if  this  be  heated  on  a 
platinum-foil,  it  will  fuse,  and  afterward  volatilize  completely.  The  fumes  of  benzoic 
acid  cause  a  peculiar  irritating  sensation  in  the  throat  and  provoke  coughing :  when  cau- 
tiously cooled,  they  condense  to  brilliant  needles ;  when  kindled,  they  burn  with  a  lumin- 
ous sooty  flame." 

ACETIC   ACID  (C2H402). 

Introduce  a  portion  of  the  original  solution  in  a  small 
tube,  pour  some  alcohol  over  it,  add  about  an  equal  volume 
of  sulphuric  acid,  and  heat  to  boiling.  Evolution  of  the  odor 
of  acetic  acid  demonstrates  its  presence,  increased  by  shaking. 

FORMIC   ACID  (CH202). 

When  neither  chromic  or  tartaric  acid  have  been  found,  add 
to  solution  argentic  nitrate  in  excess  the  sodic  hydrate  until 
the  fluid  is  exactly  neutralized,  and  boil. 

If  formic  acid  is  present,  the  argentic  formiate  which  was 
produced  is  decomposed  and  metallic  silver  precipitated 

If  chromic  and  tartaric  acid  have  been  found,  mix  the  orig- 
inal solution  with  some  nitric  acid ;  add  plumbic  oxide  in  ex- 
cess ;  shake  the  mixture ;  filter  ;  add  to  the  filtrate  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  in  excess,  and  distil.  Add  to  the  distillate  ferric 
oxide  (Fe203),  when  the  fluid  will  become  a  blood-red  color, 
owing  to  the  formation  of  a  soluble  neutral  salt. 


154: 


A     COMPLETE     TABLE     OF 


BY    JAMES 

(OLD     SYSTEM     OF 


NAME. 

AMMONIA. 

POTASH. 

CARBONATE   OF 
POTASH. 

BICARBONATE 
OF  POTASH. 

Salts  of  Potash,     - 
Soda      -    -    -    -    - 

No  precipitate. 
No  precipitate 

-          -          - 

-          -          - 

-          -          - 

Lithia        .... 

TPlia  cflTYiA 

precipitate,  but 
after  a  time  a 
granular  one. 

J.  lie  ralilL. 

Baryta,     .... 

A  voluminous 
precipitate,  solu- 
ble in  a  large 
quantity  of  wa- 
ter. 

The  same. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble 
with,  effervesces 
in  free  acids. 

The  same. 

Strontia,   •   -   •   • 
Lime     -    .    . 

No  precipitate 
unless  left  for 
some  days. 

ociine  as  otron- 

Same  as  Bary- 
ta; not  quite  so 
soluble. 

Same  as  Baryta. 
JL  he    same    as 

Same  as  Baryta. 

rpu/i  como 

tia. 

quite  so  soluble. 

Baryta  &  Stron- 
tia. 

J.  116  balDC. 

Magnesia,     -   -    - 

A  bulky  preci- 
pitate complete- 
ly soluble  in  Mu- 
riate of  Ammo- 
nia. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess  ;  solu- 
ble in  Muriate  of 
Ammonia. 

A  white  preci- 
S'tate,  soluble  in 
uriate  of  Am- 
monia. 

No    precipitate 
unless      solution 
is  boiled,  then  a 
strong  one. 

Alumina,  -   -    -    - 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  Muriate  of 
Ammonia  in  ex- 
cess, but  soluble 
in  Potash. 

A  white  preci- 

A precipitate 
soluble  in  ex- 
cess, insoluble 
in  Muriate  of 
Ammonia. 

A     precipitate 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
caustic  potash. 

A    precipitate, 

The  same  ;  Car- 
bonic   Acid    gas 
is  disengaged. 

The  same. 

pitate,  insoluble 
in  excess  and  in 
Muriate  of  Am- 
monia. 

completely  solu- 
ble in  excess. 

soluble  in  a  great 
excess  of  preci- 
pitant. 

Thoria,      -    -    -    - 

Yf*  HO 

A  gelatinous 
precipitate,  in- 
soluble inexcess. 

The  same. 

HPVio  corn  A 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

The  same. 

A  white,  volu- 
minous precipi- 
tate, in  soluble  in 
excess. 

Ji  lie  balllc. 

A.  whit6  prcci* 
pitate,  slightly 
soluble  in  a  great 
excess. 

pletely  soluble  in 
a  great  excess. 

Zirconia,  -    -    -    - 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

The  same,  per- 
fectly insoluble 
in  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, slightly 
soluble  in  a  great 
excess. 

The  same. 

Cerium,     -    -    -    - 

(Protoxide, 
Peroxide) 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, turning 
brown,  insoluble 
in  excess. 

The  same. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, slightly 
soluble  in  ex- 
cess. 

The  same. 

UNIVERSITY 


ANALYTICAL    CHEMISTRY. 
HAYWOOD. 

NOMENCLATURE.) 


CARBONATE   OF 
AMMONIA. 

SULPHURETTED 
HYDROGEN. 

HYDROSULPHATE 
OF  AMMONIA. 

YELLOW  PRUSSI- 
ATE  OF  POTASH. 

BED  PRUSSIATE 
OF  POTASH. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 

-            -            - 

-         -         - 

-          -         - 

The  same. 

No  precipitate. 

_          _         _ 

The  same. 

No  precipitate. 

_            -_            _ 

_         _          _ 

_         _         _ 

The  same. 

No  precipitate. 

_            _            _ 

-         -          - 

_          _         _ 

Same  as  the  Bi- 
carbonate of  Pot- 
ash,   soluble    in 
Muriate   of  Am- 
monia. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate  if 
the  test  is  pure. 

—         —         — 

The  same. 

No  precipitate 
in  any  solution. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate  of    Alumina, 
soluble  in  Potash. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
•excess. 

No  precipitate. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate,soluble  in  Pot- 
ash. 

No  precipitate. 

_      _      - 

The  same. 

No  precipitate. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate of  Thoria. 

A  white,  heavy 
precipitate,  solu- 
ble in  acids. 

No  precipitate. 

The  same. 

No  precipitate. 

A  precipitate  of 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

No  precipitate. 

Thesame,more 
easily  soluble  in 
excess. 

No  precipitate. 

A       voluminous 
precipitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

No  precipitate. 

The  same. 

No  precipitate. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate of  Protoxide. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

No  precipitate. 

156 


A    COMPLETE    TABLE     OF 


BY    JAMES 

(OLD    SYSTEM     OF 


NAME. 

OXALIC  ACID. 

IODIDE  or 

POTASSIUM. 

SULPHATE  OF 
POTASH. 

PHOSPHATE  OF 
SODA. 

Salts  of  Potash,     - 

T  ifhia 

No  precipitate 

_         _         _ 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, if  Ammo- 
nia be  added. 

No  precipitate; 
but  if  Ammo- 
nia be  added,  a 
strong  one. 

Baryta,     -    -    -    - 

No  precipitate 
unless  left  for 
some  days. 

A  voluminous, 
white  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
strong  acids. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
free  acids. 

Strontia,   -    -   -   - 

A  troubling  in 
strong  solutions; 
if  Ammonia  be 
added,  a  precipi- 
tate. 

An  immediate 
precipitate,  solu- 
ble in  Nitric  or 
Muriatic  Acid. 

No  precipitate. 

The  same  as 
Baryta  ;  rather 
more  soluble  in 
water. 

No  precipitate 
in  dilute  solu- 
tions, but  a  white 
one  if  strong. 

Same  as  Baryta. 
Same  as  Baryta. 

Magnesia,     -    -   - 

No  precipitate 
unless  Ammonia 
be  added. 

No  precipitate. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate, particularly 
if  Ammonia  be 
added. 

Alumina,  -    -    -    - 

No  precipitate. 

—      _ 

After  a  time 
crystals  of  Alum 
are  formed. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in 
Acids  or  Potash. 

Glucina,    -   -   -   - 

No  precipitate. 

—      —      — 

No  crystals  are 
formed. 

A  voluminous 
precipitate. 

Thoria,      .... 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

_      -      _ 

Thrown  down 
as  a  double  salt, 
insoluble  in  ex- 
cess. 

After  a  time  a 
precipitate  is 
formed,  but  is 
easy  soluble  in 
an  excess. 

A  white,  flaky- 
precipitate. 

A  white  pre- 
cipitate, soluble 
in  acids,  but  is 
again  precipita- 
ted by  boiling. 

Zirconia,  .... 

A  white  precip- 
itate, soluble  in 
a  great  excess  or 
in  Muriatic  Acid. 

A  white  precip- 
itate,eveninacid 
solutions  ;  spar- 
ingly soluble  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

-      -      - 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, almost  in- 
soluble in  water 
and  acids. 

After  a  time  a 
precipitate,  in- 
soluble in  ex- 
cess. 

A  voluminous 
precipitate. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate. 

(Protoxide, 
Peroxide) 

ANALYTICAL     CHEMISTRY. 

HAYWOOD. 

NOMENCLATURE  ) 


157 


METALLIC  ZINC. 


BEFORE  THE  BLOWPIPE. 


OBSERVATIONS. 


On  Platinum  wire  tinges 
outer  flame  violet ;  with  Bo- 
rax and  Oxide  of  Nickel,  a 
blue  bead. 

The  bead  of  Nickel  and  Bo- 
rax is  not  changed  by  Soda ; 
heated  on  Platinum  wire 
tinges  outer  flame  yellow. 

Tinges  outer  flame  of  a  car- 
mine color ;  the  double  phos- 
phate is  fusible. 


Cannot  easily  be  distin- 
guished ;  the  Chloride  tinges 
outer  flame  greenish ;  infusi- 
ble alone;  fusible  with  fluxes. 

Tinges  outer  flame  carmine 
red  when  heated  on  Platinum 
wire. 


Same  as  Stroutia,  only  not 
so  bright;  gives  a  powerful 
white  light  when  strongly 
heated. 

When  a  salt  of  Magnesia, 
that  has  been  heated,  is  mois- 
tened with  Nitrate  of  Cobalt, 
it  acquires  a  pale  red  color. 

Treated  as  the  above  on 
Charcoal,  a  fine  blue  color  is 
communicated  to  the  assay. 


When  moistened  with  Ni- 
trate of  Cobalt,  becomes  dark 
gray,  or  nearly  black. 


Not  easily  distinguished ; 
produces  a  colorless  bead 
with  Borax. 


Y-ttria  behaves  in  the 
manner  as  Glucina. 


Give  a  white  precipitate  with  Tartaric  Acid, 
a  yellow  one  with  Chloride  of  Platinum,  and 
a  gelatinous  one  with  Hydrofluosilicic  Acid, 
which  distinguishes  it  from  other  substances. 

Gives  no  .precipitate  with  Tartaric  Acid,  or 
Chloride  of  Platinum,  by  which  it  may  be  dis- 
tinguished. 


No  precipitate  with  Chloride  of  Platinum  ; 
an  easily  be  distinguished  from  the  former. 


Easily  distinguished  by  forming  a  white 
precipitate  with  Sulphates  and  Carbonates. 
The  Chloride  is  insoluble  in  Alcohol. 


Distinguished  from  Baryta  by  giving  a  pre- 
cipitate with  Hydrofluosilicic  Acid,  and  by  the 
filtered  liquid  of  the  still  Alkaline  Sulphate 
giving  a  precipitate  with  Baryta  water. 

Distinguished  from  Baryta  and  Strontia  by 
giving  no  precipitate  with  Sulphates  when 
diluted ;  separated  in  the  state  of  Nitrates  and 
Chlorides  by  Alcohol. 

Easily  distinguished  and  separated  by  Sul- 
phates from  the  above,  or  by  the  precipitates 
being  all  soluble  in  Muriate  of  Ammonia. 


Distinguished  from  the  Alkalies  by  giving  a 
white  precipitate  with  Ammonia,  and  may  be 
separated  from  most  other  substances  by 
Caustic  Potash. 

May  be  distinguished  from  Alumina  by  the 
Carbonates,  from  Magnesia  by  being  insolu- 
ble in  Muriate  of  Ammonia,  and  from  Lime 
and  the  Alkalies  by  Ammonia. 

Thoria  maybe  distinguished  and  separated 
from  the  above  substances,  as  it  is  perfectly 
insoluble  after  ignition  in  all  acids  except  the 
Sulphuric. 

Distinguished  from  Thoria  by  Sulphate  of 
Potash,  and  from  the  other  substances  de- 
scribed by  the  same  means  as  Thoria. 


Cannot  easily  be  distin- 
guished from  similar  sub- 
stances. 


Distinguished  from  Thoria  by  Sulphate  of 
Potash  and  Oxalic  Acid,  and  from  Yttria  by 
its  Oxide,  after  ignition,  being  insoluble  in 
all  Acids  except  the  Sulphuric. 

Converted  to  Peroxide,  sol-  Distinguished  from  other  substances  pre- 

uble  in  Borax,  producing  a  viously  described  by  turning  into  a  red  Per- 

red  bead ;  color  flies  on  cool-  oxide  when  heated  in  contact  with  the  atmos- 

ing.  phere. 


158 


A     COMPLETE     TABLE     OF 


NAME. 

AMMONIA. 

POTASH. 

CARBONATE   OF 
POTASH. 

BICARBONATE 
OF  POTASH. 

Manganese,  -    -   - 
(Protoxide) 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Muriate  of  Am- 
monia, turning 
brown  at  the  sur- 
face. 

A  precipitate, 
turning  brown, 
insoluble  in  Mu- 
riate of  Ammo- 
nia. 

A    permanent, 
white      precipi- 
tate, slightly  sol- 
uble in  Muriate 
of  Ammonia. 

The   same,  un- 
less very  dilute. 

Manganese,  -    -    - 

(Sesquioxide 
and 
Peroxide) 

KflMI 

A  dark-brown 
precipitate,  in- 
soluble in  Muri- 
ate of  Ammonia. 

A  white,  gelat- 
inous precipi- 
tate, soluble  in 
excess. 

The  same. 

The  same  as 
Ammonia. 

A  brown,  volu- 
minous precipi- 
tate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in    excess,    but 
soluble  in  Muri- 
ate of  Ammonia 
or  Caustic  Alka- 
lies. 

The  same. 

A  white  preci- 
Eitate,  which  be- 
aves      in      the 
same  manner. 

Cobalt,      .... 

(Protoxide 
or 
Peroxide) 

Nirkpl   - 

A  blue  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in 
excess,  forming 
a  greenish  so- 
lution, turning 
brown. 

A  slight  green 
troubling,  then  a 
clear,  blue  solu- 
tion, precipitate 
green  by  Potash. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Muriate  of  Am- 
monia, turning 
brown  in  contact 
with  the  air. 

A  reddish- 
brown  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
Muriate  of  Am- 
monia. 

A  blue  preci- 
pitate, insoluble, 
turning  green 
and  pale,  red 
when  boiled. 

An  apple-green 
precipitate,  in- 
soluble in  ex- 
cess. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess,  turn- 
ing brown  at  the 
surface. 

The  same. 

A  red  precipi- 
tate, which  boil- 
ing renders  blue. 

A     light-green 
precipitate. 

A  white  preci- 
S'tate,  soluble  in 
uriate  of  Am- 
monia. 

A   light-brown 
precipitate. 

A   red  precipi- 
tate. 

The  same  ;  Car- 
bonic    Acid    gas 
is  given  off. 

The  same. 

The  same  ;  Car- 
bonic Acid  is  dis- 
engaged. 

(Protoxide 
and 
Peroxide) 

(Protoxide) 
Iron       ..--- 

(Sesquioxide 
and 
Peroxide) 

Cadmium,     -    -    - 
Lpart 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
a  slight  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  an  excess,  ex- 
cept with  Ace- 
tates. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
a  great  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in    excess,    but 
soluble   in  Pot- 
ash. 

A  white   preci- 
pitate ;  Carbonic 
Acid     is     disen- 
gaged. 

A  similar  preci- 
pitate   with     an 
evolution  of  gas. 

(Protoxide 
Peroxide) 

Bismuth,  -    -    -    - 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

The  same. 

The  same. 

The  same. 

Copper,     ---   - 
(Deutoxide) 

A  green  preci- 
pitate and  deep 
purple  solution  ; 
again  precipi- 
tated by  Potash 
if  boiled. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate, which 
boiling  renders 
black. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate,      which 
boiling    renders 
black. 

A      light-green, 
precipitate,  solu- 
ble in  excess. 

ANALYTICAL     CHEMISTRY. 


159 


CARBONATE  OF 
AMMONIA. 

SULPHURETTED 
HYDROGEN. 

HYDROSULPHATE 
OF  AMMONIA. 

YELLOW  PRUSSI- 
ATE  OP  POTASH. 

RED  PRUSSIATE 
OF  POTASH. 

The  same. 

No  precipitate 
unless  Ammonia 
be  added. 

A  flesh-red  pre- 
cipitate, turning 
brownish  in  con- 
tact with  the  air. 

A  pale-reel  pre- 
cipitate, soluble 
in  free  acids. 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  free  acids. 

The  same. 

A  milk-white 
precipitate  of 
Sulphur  ;  solu- 
tion then  con- 
tains a  Proto- 
salt. 

The  flesh-red  pre- 
cipitate ;  the  preci- 
pitate by  Ammonia 
is  turned  flesh-red 
by  it. 

A  grayish-green 
precipitate. 

The  same  as 
the  Protoxide. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate if  neutral, 
but  none  if  acid. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
excess. 

A  gelatinous, 
white  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

A  yellowish-red 
precipitate,  solu- 
ble in  Muriatic 
Acid. 

A  red  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in 
Muriate  of  Am- 
monia. 

No  precipitate  ; 
solution  turns 
darker. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
excess. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate turning 
gray,  insoluble 
in  Muriatic  Acid. 

A  reddish- 
brown  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess,  forming  a 
bluish  solution. 

No  precipitate  ; 
solution  turns 
darker. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate, slightly  sol- 
uble in  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, slightly 
tending  to  green, 
insoluble  in  Mu- 
riatic Acid. 

A  yellowish- 
green  precipitate, 
insoluble  in  Mu- 
riatic Acid. 

The  same. 

No  precipitate. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate,turningbrown 
at  the  surface. 

A       light-blue 
Rrecipitate,  turn- 
]g   darker,   in- 
soluble in  Muri- 
atic Acid. 

An     immediate 
dark-blue    preci- 
Gitate,    insoluble 
i  Acids. 

A  light-brown 
precipitate. 

A  milky-white 
precipitate  of 
Sulphur;  solu- 
tion then  con- 
tains Protoxide. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate, same  as  Pro-, 
toxide. 

An  immediate 
dark-blue  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  Muriatic  Acid. 

No  precipitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate. 

A  yellowish  pre- 
cipitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

A  slightly  yel- 
low precipitate, 
soluble  in  Muri- 
atic Acid. 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

The  same. 

A  black  preci- 
pitate, in  both 
neutral  and  acid 
solutions. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

No  precipitate. 

The  same. 

A  black  preci- 
pitate, in  both 
neutral  and  acid 
solutions. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

A  pale-yellow 
precipitate,  sol- 
uble in  Mnriatic 
Acid. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess,  same  as 
Ammonia. 

A  black  or  dark- 
brown  precipi- 
tate, in  both  neu- 
tral and  acid  so- 
lutions. 

The  same  ;  insol- 
uble in  excess.. 

A  reddish- 
brown  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

A  yellowish- 
green  precipitate, 
insoluble  in  Mu- 
riatic Acid. 

160 


A     COMPLETE     TABLE     OF 


NAME. 

OXALIC  ACID. 

IODIDE  OF 

POTASSIUM. 

SULPHATE   OF 
POTASH. 

PHOSPHATE  OF 
SODA. 

Manganese,  -    -    - 
(Protoxide) 

A  white  crys- 
talline deposit, 
unless  very  di- 
lute. 

No  precipitate. 

A     permanent, 
white       preci  pi 
tate. 

Manganese,  -    -    - 

^Sesquioxide 
and 
Peroxide) 

No  precipitate, 
but  the  solution 
is  soon  rendered 
colorless. 

_          -         _ 

-       -       - 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate in  neutral 
solutions. 

Zinc      ..... 

i 

A  white  preci- 
pitate,  soluble  in 
free  Acids  and 
Alkalies. 

No  preciprt&te. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate,  soluble  in 
free  Acids  and 
Alkalies. 

Cobalt,      .... 

(Protoxide 
or 
Peroxide) 

NirkAl 

A  slight  troub- 
ling and  shortly 
a  pale-red,  preci- 
pitate. 

No  precipitate. 

A  blue  precipi- 
tate. 

(Protoxide 
and 
Peroxide) 

No  immediate 
precipitate,  but 
a  slow  deposit. 

No  precipitate. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate, slightly  ten- 
ding to  green. 

(Protoxide) 
Iron 

A  yellow  color, 
and  shortly  a 
precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, turning 
green. 

(Seequioxide 
and 
Peroxide) 

No  precipitate  ^ 
solution  turns 
yellowish. 

No  precipit&te. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate, which  Am- 
monia  turns 
brown,  and  at 
length  dissolves. 

Cadmium,     -    -    - 
Lead     -    .... 

An  immediate 
precipitate,  solu- 
ble in  Ammonia. 

—       — 

—  .       — 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

(Protoxide, 
Peroxide) 

An  immediate, 
white  precipi- 
tate. 

A  yellow  preci" 
pitate,  soluble  in 
a  great  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate,  very   in- 
soluble. 

A  white  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in 
Potash. 

Bismuth,  -    -    -    - 

No  immediate 
precipitate,  but 
after  a  time  a 
granular  one. 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

No  precipitate 
except  from  the 
water    of    solu- 
tion. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

Copper,     -    ... 

(Deutoxide) 

A  greenish  pre- 
cipitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
a  great  excess. 

No  precipitate. 

A  greenish- 
white  precipitate, 
soluble  in  Am- 
monia. 

ANALYTICAL     CHEMISTRY. 


161 


METALLIC  ZINC. 


BEFORE   THE  BLOWPIPE. 


OBSERVATIONS. 


No  precipitate. 


Is  precipitated 
as  small  metallic 
spangles. 


Precipitates  in 
a  crystalline  me- 
tallic state. 


Precipitates  it 
from  the  milky 
solution,  even  as 
a  spongy  mass. 


Zinc  and  Iron 
both  precipitate 
metallic  Copper 
from  all  its  solu- 
tions. 


Pr6duces  a  bead  of  an  ame- 
thyst color  in  the  outer  flame 
with  Borax,  which  disap- 
pears in  the  inner  flame. 


Same  as  Protoxide. 


On  Charcoal  with  Soda  a 
coat  of  white  Oxide  is  formed; 
with  Nitrate  of  Cobalt  they 
assume  a  green  color. 


The  smallest  portion  colors 
Borax  strongly  blue;  reduced 
to  a  metallic  state  with  Soda; 
magnetic. 


With  Borax  in  the  outer 
flame,  a  reddish  color,  which 
disappears  when  cold ;  with 
Soda,  a  white  magnetic 
powder. 


With  Borax  in  the  outer 
flame,  a  red  bead,  turning 
lighter  as  it  cools  :  interior 
flame  a  green  bead,  turning 
lighter  on  cooling. 


Peroxide  behaves  in  the 
same  manner;  with  Soda, 
a  magnetic  powder  is  ob- 
tained. 


Heated  on  Charcoal,  in  the 
inner  flame  a  brownish-red 
powder  sublimes. 


Heated  on  Charcoal  with 
Soda,  is  reduced  to  metallic 
globules,  which  are  mallea- 
ble; a  yellow  powder  sub- 
limes: produces  clear  glass 
with  Borax. 


On  Charcoal  are  easily  re- 
duced to  brittle  metallic  glo- 
bules ;  a  yellow  oxide  sub- 
limes ;  with  Borax,  a  clear 
glass. 


Outer  flame  with  Borax,  a 
fine  green  bead ;  inner  flame 
dirty  red ;  with  Soda  is  re- 
duced. 


The  reaction  of  these  salts  with  Hydrosul- 
phate  of  Ammonia  is  so  well  characterized 
that  they  cannot  be  mistaken. 


The  Peroxide  is  always  converted  into  the 
Deutoxide  by  solution  in  an  Acid.  Muriatic 
Acid  converts  it  into  Protoxide  by  boiling. 


The  solution  in  Potash  is  precipitated  by 
Hyd.  Sul.  'Am.,  which  distinguishes  it  from 
earthy  salts,  and  may  easily  be  separated 
from  other  metals  by  Ammonia. 


Easily  distinguished  from  all  other  salts  by 
their  behavior  with  Hydrosulphate  of  Am- 
monia. 


Distinguished  from  Cobalt  by  Ammonia  and 
Potash,  aad  from  other  substances  in  the  same 
way  as  Cobalt. 


The  Salts  of  Iron  are  easily  distinguished 
by  their  behavior  with  the  Prussiates  ;  may 
be  separated  from  Manganese  by  Succinate 
of  Soda. 


Peroxide  is  distinguished  and  separated 
from  Protoxide  by  red  Prussiate  of  Potash 
and  Ammonia. 


Distinguished  by  Sulphuretted  Hydrogen, 
and  may;be  separated  from  all  the  above  by  a 
bar  of  Zinc. 


Solutions  of  Lead  give  a  precipitate  with 
Sulphuric  Acid  and  sulphates,  and  therefore 
may  be  distinguished  from  most  other  metals. 
Muriatic  Acid  also  precipitates  Lead,  but 
water  dissolves  the  precipitate. 


May  be  detected  by  giving  a  precipitate 
with  water  alone. 


Salts  of  Copper  can  be  easily  distinguished 
from  other  salts  by  their  behavior  with  Am- 
monia and  Potash. 


162 


A     COMPLETE     TABLE     OF 


NAME. 

AMMONIA. 

POTASH. 

CARBONATE  OP 
POTASH. 

BICARBONATE 
OF  POTASH. 

Silver,       .... 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate, very  solu- 
ble in  excess,  but 
is  reprecipitated 
by  Potash. 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess,  but 
soluble  in  Am- 
monia. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Ammonia. 

The  same. 

Mercury,  -    -    -    - 
(Protoxide) 

A  black  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

A  black  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

A  dirty  yellow 
precipitate, 
which  boiling 
renders  black. 

A  white   preci-      \ 
pitate,    rendered 
black  by  boiling. 

Mercury,  -   -   -    - 
J(Peroxide) 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

A  yellow  or 
white  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in 
excess. 

A  r  e  d  d  i  s  fa- 
brown  precipi- 
tate ;  if  it  con- 
tains Muriate 
of  Ammonia,  a 
white  one. 

A      r  e  d  d  i  s  fa- 
brown      precipi- 
tate,   either    im- 
mediate or  after 
a  time. 

Platina,    -   -    -   - 
finid 

A  yellow  preci- 
jpirate,  soluble  in 
excess,  insoluble 
in  free  acids. 

A  yellow  pre- 
cipifate,  soluble 
in  excess  when 
boiled,  and  again 
precipitated  by 
acids. 

At          iivwf          Yin 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

The  same  ;  Mu- 
riatic Acid  must 
be  added   in  all 
cases. 

Tin    ------ 

A  yellow  preci" 
pitate. 

A  white  Dreci* 

j\L  nrst  no 
precipitate,  but 
shortly  a  black 
one. 

A  white  Dreci- 

No  precipitate. 
A  white  preci- 

No  precipitate 
The  same 

(Protoxide) 

Tin 

pitate,  insoluble 
in  excess. 

pitate,  soluble  in 
excess  ;  decom- 
posed by  boiling. 

pitate,  insoluble 
in  excess. 

(Peroxide) 

A  white  preci- 
pitate,  soluble  in 
acids  and  in  ex- 
cess. 

The  same,  sol- 
uble  in  excess. 

The  s  a  m  e  ; 
deposits  slowly 
again  after  solu- 
tion. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate,  insoluble 
in  excess. 

Antimony,    -    -    - 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess  and  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

The  sane,  sol- 
uble in  Muriatic 
Acids. 

The  same. 

The  same. 

Chromium,  -    -    - 

A  greenish-blue 
precipitate,  in- 
soluble in  ex- 
cess. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess  ;  again 
thrown  down  by 
boiling. 

A  green  preci- 
pitate, slightly 
soluble  in  ex- 
cess. 

The  same  ;  rath- 
er lighter. 

Vanadium,    -    -   - 

A  grayish- 
white  precipi- 
tate, turning  red 
and  dissolving. 

The  same. 

A  grayish- 
white  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in 
excess. 

The  same. 

Columbium,  -    -   - 

Is  readily  dis- 
solved, and  may 
be  again  precipi- 
tated by  acids. 

The  same,  in- 
soluble in  strong 
acids. 

The  same,  and 
may  be  dissolved 
by  Acetic  Acid. 

The  same. 

Iridium,    -    -    -    - 

A  brown  pre- 
cipitate, partly 
soluble,  forming 
a  purple  solu- 
tion. 

A  dark-brown 
precipitate. 

• 
No  precipitate; 
color  destroyed. 

The  same. 

ANALYTICAL     CHEMISTRY. 


163 


CAKBONATE  OF 
AMMONIA. 

SULPHURETTED 
HYDROGEN. 

HTDROSULPHATE 
OF  AMMONIA. 

YELLOW  PRUSSI- 
ATE  OF  POTASH. 

RED  PRUSSIATE 
OF  POTASH. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

A  black  preci- 
pitate, in  both 
neutral  and  acid 
solutions. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

A  reddish- 
brown  precipi- 
tate. 

A  gray  or  black 
precipitate. 

A  black  preci- 
pitate, in  acid 
and  neutral  solu- 
tions. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate, insoluble  in 
excess,  partly  sol- 
uble in  Potash. 

A  white,  gelat- 
inous precipi- 
tate. 

A  reddish- 
brown  precipi- 
tate, turning 
white. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

A  black  preci- 
pitate, turning 
white,  and  again 
black  by  an  ex- 
cess, soluble  in 
Potash. 

The  same;  solu- 
tion must  be  neu- 
tral. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, turning 
blue. 

A  yellow  in  most 
solutions.  but 
none  with  the 
Perchloride. 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate. 

A  brown  color 
and  shortly  a 
precipitate. 

A  brown  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in  a 
large  excess. 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate, solution 
turns  darker. 

The  same. 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate, if  neutral. 

A  black  preci- 
pitate, in  both 
acid  and  neutral 
solutions. 

A  brown  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in  ex- 
cess. 

An  emerald- 
green  color. 

No  precipitate. 

The  same. 

A  dark-brown 
precipitate,  in 
both  acid  and 
neutral  solu- 
tions. 

A  brown  precipi- 
tate, soluble  in  ex- 
cess,    re  precipita- 
ted    by    Muriatic 
•Acid. 

A  white,  gelat- 
inous precipi- 
tate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Muriatic  Acid. 

The  same. 

No  immediate 
precipitate,  but 
shortly  a  yellow 
one. 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

No  precipitate 
at  first,but  short- 
ly the  whole 
forms  a  thick 
jelly. 

No  precipitate. 

The  same. 

A  red  precipi- 
tate in  acid  so- 
lutions. 

A  red  precipitate, 
soluble  in  an  ex- 
cess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  Muriatic  Acid. 

No  precipitate, 
but      shortly     a 
slight  opacity. 

The  same  ;  ap- 
proaching to  vio- 

No  precipitate 
in  any  solutions. 

A  greenish  preci- 
pitate. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate* 

The  same,  in- 
soluble in  excess. 

Generally  a 
brown  precipi- 
tate, in  ether, 
acid,'  or  neutral 
solutions. 

A  grayish-white 
precipitate. 

—       —       — 

—       —       — 

The  same. 

—       -       - 

No  action  with 
the  Acid,  but  a 
brown  precipitate 
with  the  Oxide. 

A  yellowish- 
green  precipi- 
tate. 

—       —       — 

The  same. 

A  dark-brown 
precipitate. 

The  same  ;  solu- 
ble in  excess. 

No  precipitate. 

164 


A     COMPLETE     TABLE     OF 


NAME. 

OXALIC  ACID. 

IODIDE   OF 
POTASSIUM. 

SULPHATE  OP 
POTASH. 

PHOSPHATE  OP 
SODA. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Ammonia. 

Ayellowish  pre- 
cipitate, soluble 
in  excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate', unless  the 
solution    be    di- 
luted ;  soluble  in 
water. 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Ammonia. 

Mercury,  -    -    -    - 
(Protoxide) 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

A  greenish-yel- 
low precipitate, 
rendered     black 
by  an  excess  and 
at     length    dis- 
solves. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

Mercury,  -    -    -    - 
(Peroxide) 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, but  none 
in  the  Perchlo- 
ride. 

A   fine   scarlet 
precipitate,   sol- 
uble   in    excess 
and  in  Muriatic 
Acid. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate   in    most, 
but    not   in   the 
Perchloride. 

Platina,    -    -    -    - 

TolH 

No  precipitate. 

A  dark  color, 
and  shortly  the 
Gold  is  precipi- 
tated. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

No  precipitate. 

A    deep-brown 
color  and  preci- 
pitate,       which 
boiling  reduces. 

A    dark    color 
and  a  yellowish 
precipitate. 

A       yellowish 
Rrecipitate.turn- 
ig  red,  soluble 
in  excess. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 
No  precipitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, partial. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 
No  precipitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate. 

Tin       • 

(Protoxide) 
Tin 

(Peroxide) 

Antimony,    -    -    - 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, caused  by 
water. 

The  same. 

The  same. 

The  same. 

Chromium,   -    -    - 

No  precipitate. 

A  greenish  pre- 
cipitate, soluble 
in  Muriatic  Acid. 

No  precipitate. 

A      light-green 
precipitate. 

Vanadium,    -    -    - 

-       -       - 

-       -       - 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 

Columbium,      -    - 

Dissolves    the 
Oxides. 

-       -       - 

Fused  with  it, 
the     Oxide     re- 
mains after  boil- 
ing. 

-       -       - 

Iridium,    -    -    -    - 

-       -       - 

-       -       - 

No  precipitate 
or  action. 

._       _       _ 

ANALYTICAL     CHEMISTRY. 


165 


METALLIC  ZINC. 


BEFOUE   THE  BLOWPIPE. 


OBSERVATIONa 


Is  precipitated 
in  a  metallic  state. 


Forms  a  gray 
coating,  which  is 
an  amalgam. 


Same    as   Pro- 
toxide. 


A  black,  metal- 
lic powder. 


A  brown,  bulky 
coating. 


Small  grayish- 
white  spangles 
of  Tin. 


A  white  jelly_; 
Hydrogen  gas  is 
disengaged. 


Precipitated  in 
the  form  of  a 
black  powder. 


No  precipitate. 


Precipitated  as 
a  dark  powder. 


With  Borax  in  the  outer 
flame,  a  milky  glass ;  with 
Soda  is  easily  reduced. 


Heated  in  a  glass  tube  with 
a  little  Soda,  Mercury  sub- 
limes and  condenses  in  small 
globules. 


Same  as  Protoxide. 


Completely    reduced,    but 
rives  no  color  to  fluxes  or 


Same  as  Platina,  insoluble 
in  all  acids  except  Nitro-Mu- 
riatic. 


Easily  reduced  with  Soda ; 
deprives  a  bead  of  Copper 
and  microcosmic  salt  of  its 
green  color. 


Reduced  on  Charcoal,  forms 
a  white  enamel  with  glass ; 
does  not  dissolve  easily  in 
Borax. 


Reduced  with  Soda,  rapidly 
oxidizes  and  sublimes  in  the 
outer  flame  as  a  thick,  white 
smoke. 


A  fine  emerald-green  bead, 
both  in  the  inner  and  outer 
flame,  with  fluxes. 


In  the  inner  flame,  with 
Borax,  a  green  glass,  outer 
becomes  yellow. 


Effervesces  with  Soda;  a 
clear  glass  with  Borax,  or 
the  Phosphoric  Salt. 


No  action  with  fluxes ;  no 
odor ;  may  be  coupled  with 


Muriatic  Acid  throws  down  a  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble  in  acids,  but  soluble  in  Am- 
monia, which  distinguishes  it  from  all  other 
substances. 


Muriatic  Acid  gives  a  white  precipitate, 
insoluble  in  acids,  which  Ammonia  renders 
black,  but  does  not  dissolve  ;  by  this  it  may 
be  distinguished. 


Persalts  of  Mercury  are  easily  recognized 
by  Sulphuretted  Hydrogen  and  Iodide  of  Po- 
tassium. 


Easily  recognized  by  its  behavior  with  Pot- 
ash and  Ammonia ;  may  be  separated  by  Mu- 
riate of  Potash. 


Protochloride  of  Tin  gives  a  deep  purple 
color  and  precipitate ;  Sulphate  of  Iron  throws 
down  the  gold,  which  distinguishes  it  from 
most  other  metals. 


The  behavior  of  these  salts  with  Gold,  as 
above,  is  sufficient  to  distinguish  them. 


The  Peroxide  is  insoluble  in  all  Acids  after 
ignition  ;  Nitric  Acid  oxidizes  Tin,  but  does 
not- dissolve  the  Oxide. 


The  Oxide  is  volatile  and  insoluble  in 
Nitric  Acid ;  may  be  distinguished  from  Tin 
by  Sulphuretted  Hydrogen ;  water  only  pre- 
cipitates part  of  the  Oxide. 

Its  solutions  are  usually  green,  and  may  be 
distinguished  from  most  other  solutions  by 
Sulphuretted  Hydrogen. 


All  its  salts  have  a  blue  color :  distinguished 
from  Iron  by  Hydrosulphate  of  Ammonia. 


When  fused  with  Caustic  or  Carbonated 
Alkalies,  the  whole  is  soluble  in  water. 


Fused  with  Carbonate  of  Potash,  the  result 
is  not  soluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  in  Mu- 
riatic Acid,  producing  various  colors. 


166 


A     COMPLETE     TABLE     OP 


NAME. 

AMMONIA. 

POTASH. 

CARBONATE  OP 
POTASH. 

BICARBONATE 
OF  POTASH. 

Rhodium,      -    -    - 

Shortly  a  lem- 
on-yellow color. 

A  yellow  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
acids. 

A      gelatinous 
Crecipitate  when 
oiled  with  the 
double  Chloride. 

No  precipitate 

Palladium,    -   -   - 

A  yellowish 
precipitate, 
slightly  soluble 
in  excess. 

An  orange-col- 
ored precipitate 
from  the  Nitrate. 

A    deep-brown 
precipitate,     in- 
srluble     in    ex- 
cess. 

The  same. 

Osmium,  -    -    -    - 

No  precipitate  ; 
solution  turns 
yellow. 

Fused  with  the 
whole,  is  soluble 
in  water. 

No  precipitate  ; 
solution      turns 
yellowish. 

The  same. 

Tellurium,    -    -    - 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess  ;  repreci- 
pitated  by  acids. 

The  same. 

The  same. 

Titanium,     -    -    - 

A  white  preci- 
pitate, insoluble 
in  excess. 

The  same. 

The  same. 

The  same. 

Tungsten,     -   -   - 

The  Acid  dis- 
solves, but  is 
again  precipita- 
ted by  stronger 
acids. 

The  same. 

Is  insoluble  in 
water      when 
fused  in  it. 

-       -       - 

Uranium,      -    -    - 

A  brown,  flaky 
precipitate,  in- 
soluble in  ex- 
cess. 

A  yellowish 
precipitate,  in- 
soluble in  ex- 
cess. 

The      same, 
slightly  soluble. 

The  same. 

Molybdenum,  -   - 

The  Acid  is  dis- 
solved, and  the 
Protoxide  forms 
a  brown  precipi- 
tate. 

The  same  ;  pre- 
cipitate insolu- 
ble in  excess. 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
excess. 

The  same. 

ANALYTICAL     CHEMISTRY. 


167 


CARBONATE  OF 
AMMONIA. 

SULPHURETTED 
HYDROGEN. 

HYDROSULPHATE 
OF  AMMONIA. 

YELLOW  PRUSSI- 
ATE  OF  POTASH. 

RED  PRUSSIATE 
OF  POTASH. 

No  precipitate. 

-          -         - 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 

-         _          _ 

The  same. 

A   dark-brown 
precipitate. 

The  same. 

An   orange   or 
olive  yellow  pre- 
cipitate. 

_         _          _ 

The  same. 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate. 

The  same;  solu- 
ble in  excess. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 

The  same. 

A  black    preci- 
pitate, soluble  in 
Potash. 

The  same,  or  in 
excess. 

No  precipitate. 

No  precipitate. 

The  same. 

No  precipitate. 

A  dirty-green  pre- 
cipitate, unless 
Tartaric  Acid  be 
present,  then  no 
precipitate. 

A  deep  orange 
precipitate. 

The  same. 

—       —       — 

No  precipitate. 

A  precipitate,  sol- 
uble in  excess. 

_       —       — 

—       —       — 

A       yellowish 
precipitate,  solu- 
ble in  excess. 

No  precipitate. 

A  black  precipi- 
tate, slightly  solu- 
ble in  excess. 

A  brownish-red 
precipitate. 

_       _       _ 

The  same. 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate, in  Alka- 
line solutions. 

The  samej  if  Mu- 
riatic Acid  be 
added. 

A  brown  preci- 
pitate. 

The  same. 

168 


A     COMPLETE     TABLE     OF 


NAME. 

OXALIC  ACID. 

IODIDE  OF 
POTASSIUM. 

SULPHATE  OF 
POTASH. 

PHOSPHATE  OF 
SODA. 

Rhodium,      -   -    - 

—       —       — 

—          —         — 

Fused  with  the 
Bi  sulphate,  the 
whole  dissolves 
in  water. 

—          —         — 

Palladium,   •   -   - 

No  action. 

_          _          __ 

An  orange-yel- 
low precipitate. 

-         -         - 

Osmium,  -    -    -    - 

Tarns    darker, 
but  is  not  preci- 
pitated. 

—          —          — 

No  precipitate 
or  action. 

—          —         — 

Titanium,     -    -    - 

A  white  floccu- 
lent  precipitate. 

-          _         _ 

-       -       - 

-          -         ~ 

Tungsten,     -    -    - 

_____ 

-         -          - 

Does  not  form 
a  double  salt. 

_         _         _ 

Uranium,      ... 

_       _      _ 

-         -          - 

No  double  salt. 

_          _          - 

ANALYTICAL     CHEMISTRY. 


169 


METALLIC  ZINC. 


BEFORE   THE  BLOWPIPE. 


OBSERVATIONS. 


Precipitated 
from  double 
Chloride  of  Rho- 
dium and  Soda. 


Precipitated  in 
a  metallic  state. 


Precipitated  as 
a  dark  powder. 


Is  precipitated 


der. 


pow- 


A       deep-blue 
color  is  produced. 


In  Muriatic 
Acid  a  blue  Oxide 
is  formed. 


In  a  Muriatic 
solution  of  the 
Acid  a  blue  and 
red  powder. 


No  action  with  fluxes. 


Same  as  Rhodium. 


Gives  a  strong  odor  of 
Chlorine ;  has  no  action 
with  fluxes ;  maybe  cupelled 
with  Lead. 


A  white  glass,  when  cold ; 
with  fluxes ;  fumes  when 
heated  alone. 


With  Soda,  a  yellow  glass, 
opaque  when  cold ;  with  Bo- 
rax and  inner  flame,  a  blue 
glass. 


With  Borax,  a  clear  glass 
in  the  outer  flame,  yellow  in 
the  inner;  blood-red  with 
Iron  and  Phosphorous  salt. 


On  Platinum  with  Borax, 
a  clear,  yellow  glass,  outer 
flame,  dirty  green,  not  vola- 
tile. 


Sublimes  as  a  white  pow- 
der ;  a  clear  glass  with  Bo- 
rax. 


Insoluble  in  acids  after  ignition ;  distin- 
guished and  separated  by  Bisulphate  of 
Potash ;  the  double  Chloride  is  soluble  in 
Alcohol. 


The  Cyanide  of  Mercury  will  easily  sepa- 
rate Palladium  as  a  yellow  precipitate :  the 
Chloride  is  soluble  in  Alcohol. 


Tincture  of  Galls  gives  a  purple  precipi- 
tate ;  separated  by  distillation. 


May  be  separated  from  most  other  metals, 
combined  with  Chlorine  or  Hydrogen,  both 
compounds  being  volatile. 


Is  precipitated  by  boiling ;  distinguished 
from  other  metals  by  its  behavior  with  Tar- 
taric  Acid  and  Hydrosulphate  of  Ammonia. 


Sulphuric,  Nitric,  and  Muriatic  Acid  preci- 
pitate its  Alkaline  solutions  white,  turning 
yellow  when  boiled  with  Nitro-Muriatic 
Acid. 


Separated  from  most  metals  by  dissolving 
in  Carbonate  of  Ammonia  or  Soda  ;  its  solu- 
tions are  green. 


Distinguished  by  Carbonates,  but  separated 
by  Hydrosulphate  of  Ammonia. 


170  ZETTNOW'S  SCHEME  FOR  QUALITATIVE  ANALY 

ARRANGED   BY 

FOR  THE  STUDENTS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Add  hydrochloric  acid  to  the  solution,  wash,  and  filter. 


Precipitate. 
Boil  with  water  and 
filter. 

Add  excess  of  dilute 

Solu- 
tion. 
Add 
H2S04 

Residue. 

Treat  with 
(NH,)HO. 

Precipitate. 

Agitate  with  considerable  cold 
water  and  filter. 

To  4  add  BaH2Oa 
and  boil. 

Place  -»- 
when 
wash 

Pre- 
cip- 
itate 
Pb. 

Solu-  Eesidue 
tion.      turns 
Add       gray 
HNO3.       or 
black, 

Filtrate. 
Add  excess 
of 
(NH4)2C2O4 

Residue. 
Add  (NH4)HO  and 
(NH4),C4H406, 
digest  and  filter. 

Volatilized.    Solution. 

(NH4).,0.         Add 
Test  gas        excess 
with  HC1           of 
and  litmus.  (NH4)2CO3 
and 

Vola- 
tilized. 
Collect 
spots  on 
cold 
porce- 
lain, 
and 
treat 
with 
NaClO. 
Spots 
dissolve; 
As. 
Spots 
do  not 
dissolve  ; 
Sb. 
Test 
also  with 
AgN03. 

Hg-. 
Pre- 
cip- 
itate 
As. 

Precipitate 
Ca. 

Residue. 
Boil  with  Na2C03, 
filter,  wash,  dissolve 
on  filter  with  HC1, 
neutralize  filtrate 
with  (NH4)HO,  and 
divide  into  two 
parts. 

Filtrate. 
Add 
H(C,H,02) 
and  K2CrO4 

(NH4)2C204, 
warm,  filter, 
evaporate  to  dryness, 
and  ignite  residue. 
Test  on  platinum 
wire  in  colorless 
flame;  intense  yellow 
color  indicates 

Na. 

Violet  color  seen 
through  blue  glass 
indicates 
K. 

Precipitate 
Pb. 

1st  Haff. 
Add  excess 
of  solution 
ofSrS04. 

Second  Half. 
Add  excess  of 
H2Si3Fle  and  alco- 
hol.   Shake,  filter, 
dilute  with  water, 
expel  alcohol  by 
evaporation,  add 
solution  of  CaSO4, 
and  after  one  or 
two  miuutes  a 
precipitate 
Sr. 

Precipitate 
Ba. 

In  this  scheme  regard  is  had  to  the  following  sub- 
stances in  aqueous  solution  : 

I.    PbO,  Ag2O,  HgO. 
II.    CaO,  BaO,  SrO. 
III.    (NH4)aO,  Na20,  K20. 
IV.    As203,  As205,  Sb.203,  Sb2O5,  SnO,  SnOa, 
Hg20,  CuO,  CdO,  Bu03. 
V.    FeO,  Fea03,  CraO,,  AlaO,. 
VI.    MnO,  MgO,  CoO,  NiO. 
VII.    ZnO. 

N.  B.—  To  test  for  zinc,  mix 
HC1,  H2S04,  filter,  add  NaHO  in 
and  NH4C1  to  filtrate,  boil  until 
ter.    Add  K4FeaCy8  to  solution, 

SIS  WITHOUT  THE  USE  OF  H2S  OR  (NfU)  HS, 

H.  C.  BOLTON,  Ph.D., 
OF     MINES,     COLUMBIA    COLLEGE. 


171 


Filtrate. 

H^SOi  and  wash  on  filter. 


Filtrate. 
Divide  the  solution  tnto  two  unequal  parts,  \  and  |. 


of  the  solution  in  a  Marsh's  apparatus,  add  pieces  of  zinc  and  a  strip  of  platinum  foil, 
but  little  zinc  remains  heat  15  or  20  minutes,  and  throw  contents  of  flask  on  a  filter ; 
thoroughly. 


Treat  with  strong  HNO3,  and  filter. 


Filtrate. 

Boil  with  a  little  HNO8  and  divide  in  two 
unequal  parts. 


Residue. 
Wash,  boil 
with  HC1, 
and  filter. 


tion. 

Put  in 

a  plati- 
num ilu 
dish   ' 

with  a 

piece 

ofzinc. 

A  dark 
spot 

on  the 
plati- 
num 
indi- 
cates 
Sb. 


due. 
Add 
to  so- 

tion 

ill 

plati- 
num 
dish, 
boil 
with 
HC1, 
filter 
and 
add 
HgCl2 
Pre- 
cipi- 
tate 
Sn. 


Filtrate. 
Divide  into  two  parts. 


1st  Portion. 

Add  KCyS. 
Red  Color, 


1st  Half. 

Add 
SnClo. 


Precipi- 
tate 
Hg-. 


Second  Portion. 

Neutralize  with  (NH4)HO,  add  ex- 
cess of  BafO;,,  agitate  10  minutes, 
filter  and  wash  thoroughly. 


Second  Half. 
Add  HC1,  boil, 
then  add  excess  of 
NaHO,  wash  the 
precipitate  on  fil- 
ter with  water, 

then  with 
(NH*)HO  contain- 
ing NH4C1. 


Residue. 

Dissolve 
on  filter 
in  very 

little 

HC1  and 

add 

large 

quantity 

to  the 
filtrate. 
A  cloudy 
precipi- 
tate in- 
dicates 
Bi. 


Filtrate. 

Divide  into  two 
parts. 


Precipitate. 

Boil  in  a  porcelain 

dish  with  dilute 

HnSO4  and  filter. 

Add  excess  of  NaHO 

to  filtrate,  a  few  drops 

of  K2Mn2Os,  and  a 

little  NH4C1,  boil, 

filter,  and  divide  the 

solution. 


1st  Half. 

Acidify 
with  HC1 

and  add 
KtFe2Cy8 


Precipi- 
tate 
Cu. 


3d  Half. 
Add 

excess 
of 

NaHO. 

a  white 

gelatin- 
ous 

Precipi 
tate 
Cd. 


1st  Half. 
Add  some 
E(CSHS0,) 

and 

Fb(C8H,Oa)9 

Precipitate 

Cr. 


M  Half. 
Add  ex- 
cess of 
NH4C1. 
Precipi- 
tate 
Al. 


*  To  determine  de- 
gree of  oxidation  of 
Fe,  examine  the  ori- 
ginal solution  with 
K4Fe2Cy8  and  KCyS. 


a  portion  of  the  original  solution  with 
excess,  and  boil.  Add  a  little  (NH4)2CO3 
all  odor  of  (NH4)HO  is  expelled,  and  fil- 
a  cloud  or  precipitate  indicates  Zn. 


Filtrate. 

Add  excess  of  dilute 
HaSO,,  filter,  and  sat- 
urate filtrate  with 
[NH4)aCO3,  warm,  filter, 
and  wash. 


Precipitate 
Mix  a  por- 
tion with 
Na.,C03 
and  NaN03, 
fuse  on 
platinum 

foil. 

Green  color, 
Mn.   - 


Dissolve 
another 
portion  in 
HC1,  neu- 
tralize 
with 

(NH4)HO, 
add  con- 
siderable 
NH4C1  and 
(NH4)2C2O4 
Precipitate 
Ca. 


Solution. 

Add 
Na2HP04. 


Pre- 
cipi- 
tate 
Mgr. 


Solu- 
tion. 
Evap- 
orate 
to 
dry- 
ness,  dis- 
solve in 
HC1,  add 
KNOn  and 
H(C,H3Oa), 
filter. 


Pre- 
cipi- 
tate 
Co. 


Solu- 
tion. 
Add 
Na 
HO. 


Pre- 
cipi- 
tate 
Ni. 


172         STAS-OTTO'S    SCHEME    FOR     THE 

TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  OERMAN 


Taken  up  by  ether  in  acid 
solutions.* 

Taken  up  by  ether 

With  tannic  acid. 

Solid 

Precipitated. 

No  action. 

With  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

COLCHI- 

CIN. 

DlGITA- 
LIN. 

PICROTOX- 

IN. 

In  the  cold. 

On  heating. 

The  yellow 
solution  is 
colored 
violet  by 
concen- 
trated 

Mixed  with 
a  solution 
of  galls 
concentra- 
ted HaSO4, 
a  bright- 

The  dilute 
alkaline 
(.NaHO) 
solution  is 
colorless 
and 

Rose-red. 

Brown-red. 

Yellow, 
then  or- 
ange, and 
cherry-red. 

Yellow,  then 
violet-blue, 
and  dark-red. 

HNOS 

is  formed 
and  finally 
a  red 

Fehling's 
copper 
solution. 

BBUCIN. 

DELPHIN- 

IN 

VERA- 

TRIN 

NARCOTIN 

liquid. 

Soluble  in 

forms  with 

forms  with 

on  dissolving 

concentra- 
ted HN03, 

concentra- 
ted H2S04 

concentra- 
ted HC1  a 

in  H2SO, 
with  a  little 

On  diluting 
the  nitric 
acid  solu- 
tion and 
making  it 
alkaline 
With  NaHO, 
an  orange- 
red  colora- 
tion is 
obtained. 

On  dissolv- 
ing in  con- 
centrated 
H2SO<  and 
mixing 
with  a  drop 
of  bromine 
water,  a 
violet-red 
coloration 
is 
produced. 

with  a 
bright-red 
color, 
which 
becomes 
yellow  on 
heating. 
On  adding 
stannic 
choride  to 
this  solu- 
tion, a 

and  bro- 
mine water 
a  reddish- 
violet  color. 
The  same 
coloration 
appears  on 
evaporat- 
ing with 
phosphoric 
acid. 

colorless 
solution, 
which 
becomes  a 
fine  dark- 
red  on 
heating. 

HNO3,  forms 
a  red  color. 
Concentrated 
H2SO<   with 
a  trace  of 
sodic  molyb- 
date  forms  a 
green  color. 
Dissolves  in 
HC1,  forming 
a  pale-green 
solution 
which  turns 

is  formed. 

yellowish-red 

ACONITIN 

on  adding 

NH4HO. 

dissolves 

in  H2SO< 

with  a 

red-brown 

color. 

*  Also  a  small  quantity  of  atropin. 

t  Also  partially 

*  Pharmaceutische  Post, 


DETECTION    OF    ALKALOIDS,    ETC.       173 

BY    H.    CARRINGTON     BOLTON,     PH.D.* 


in  alkaline  solutions.! 

Insoluble  in 
ether. 

<odorless). 

Liquid  (strongly  odorous). 

MOEPHIN.  ' 

With  concentrated  H2SO4 
and  K2Cr3O7. 

The  ammonia- 
cal  solution 
gives  a  grass- 

With  chlorine  water. 

green  solution 
on  heatinff 

In  the  cold. 

On  heating. 

With 
concentrated 
phosphoric 
acid  and 

with  cupram- 
monium 
(Nadler). 
Concentrated 

application 

HN03  colors  it 

of  heat. 

blood  red. 

Violet-blue. 

Characteris- 
tic odor. 

Precipitated. 

No  action. 

neutral  Fe2Cl8 
colors  it 

dark-blue. 

On  dissolving 

,    i 

STBYCHNIN 

ATBOPIN. 

ACONITIN 

CONIN. 

NICOTIN. 

in  concentrated 
HsSO^heating, 
allowing  to 

forms  a  yellow 
solution  with 
HN03. 
The  violet 
coloration  also 
obtains  when 
either  potassic 
ferri  cyanide, 
plumbic  and 
manganic 
dioxides,  or 
potass  ic  iodate 
is  used 
in  place  of 
K,Cr207. 

The 
odor  is  better 
formed  by 
placing  the 
alkaloid  on  a 
few  crystals 
of  chromic 
acid  and   . 
gently 
heating  until 
the  green 
oxide  of 
chromium 
begins  to 
form. 

produces  a 
violet  color. 
Dissolves  in 
concentrated 
H2SO4witha 
hair-brown 
color. 

Aqueous 
solutions 
become 
colored  on 
heating. 

Aqueous 
solutions  do 
not  become 
colored  on 
heating. 

cool,  and  then 
adding  a  little 
HN03,  an  in- 
tense red  color 
is  produced. 
Reduces  an 
acid  solution 
of  iodic  acid, 
the  iodine 
dissolving  out 
in  CS2  with  a 
•violet  color. 

DELPHIKIN 
and 
DIGITALIN 

Dry  HC1  gas 
colors  it  red 
and  then 
deep-blue. 

On  gently 
heating  with 
HC1, 
becomes 
violet,  and  on 

adding 
wivrn 

behave  in  the 

±UNU3 

the  color 

Note. 

same  manner 
with  H3P04. 

changes  to 
orange. 

CUBABIN 

gives  similar 

reactions  to 

strychnin, 

but  forms  a 

red  color  with 

H2SO4  alone, 

and  is  more- 

over insoluble 

in  ether  in  the 

presence  of 

acids  and 

alkalies. 

•colchicin  and  digitalin. 

Vol.  VI.,  No.  11,  June,  1873. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

DETECTION    AND    SEPARATION    OF  ALKALOIDS. 

According  to  J.  Trapp  (Jahresb.,  1863,  p.  702). 
The  yellow  pulverulent  or  flocculent  precipitates  produced 
in  the  acid  solution  of  many  organic  bases  by  phosphomolybdic 
acid  are  insoluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  but  easily  soluble  in 
ammonic  hydrate  and  the  fixed  alkalies.  The  solutions  of  the 
several  precipitates  in  ammonic  hydrate  exhibit  the  following 
color-reactions  : 

Precipitate.  ^^HySra^^        On  Boiling. 

Aconitin  .........  1 

BeEu:::::::::  Yellow  .............  Blue  ...............  Coloriess- 

Berberin  .........  J 

Brucin  .............  Orange  .............  Yellow-green  ........  Brown. 

Codein  .............  Yellow  .............  Green  ..............  Orange-red. 

Yellow 


Qainidn 

Caftein  .............  Yellow  .............  Colorless  .........  r  .     - 

Conin  ..............  Yellowish-  white  .....  Light-blue  ..........  Colorless. 

With  digit-aim  (yj-g-  of  a  grain)  and  phosphomolybdic  acid, 
there  is  formed  a  yellow  liquid,  which  becomes  green  on  boil- 
ing ;  deep-indigo  on  addition  of  ammonic  hydrate  ;  green  again 
on  heating  ;  then  colorless. 

NEW  REACTION  OF  THE  ALKALOIDS.* 
If  strychnin  be  dissolved  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  to 
which  is  added  a  little  eerie  oxide  (sesquioxide  of  cerium),  an 
intense  blue  color  is  developed,  similar  to  that  produced  in  the 
ordinary  mode  of  testing  by  potassic  dichromate.  The  color 
is,  however,  more  durable,  and  passes  gradually  into  a  cherry 
red,  which  remains  unchanged  for  several  days.  Other  alka- 
loids, treated  in  the  same  manner,  give  rise  to  a  variety  of 
color-reactions,  as  follows  : 

Brucin  (C2|H22N202)  —  Orange,  and  finally  yellow. 
Morphin  (C34H38N206)  —  Brown,    olive-green,    and    finally 
brown. 

Narcotin  (C5H7N)  —  Brown,  passing  to  cherry-red. 

*  Vierteljahresschrift  fuer  Prak.  Pharm. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


175 


Codein  (C|8H2IN03  or  C36H42N206) — Olive-green,  and 
finally  brown. 

Quinin  (C20H24N202) — Pale-yellow. 

Y er atrin  (C32H52N20 8) — Reddish-brown. 

Atropin  (C ,  7  H 23  N Q3) — Yellowish-brown. 

Solanin  (C43H7I  NO, 6  ?)— Yellow  and  finally  brown. 

Emetin  (C30H44N208)— Brown. 

Colchicin  (C,7H,9N05) — Green,  and  finally  dirty-brown. 

Conin  (C8H  I5N) — Clear  yellow. 

Piperin  (C,7HI9N03) — Colors  the  sulphuric  acid  blood-red ; 
an  addition  of  eerie  oxide,  dark-brown. 

STRYCHNIN. 

The  following  table  comprises  the  various  tests  for  strych- 
nia made  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Wenzell  (Am.  Jour.  Phar.,  Sept.  1870). 
The  solution  of  strychnin  was  made  by  dissolving  the  alkaloid 
in  water  with  the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid  : 


GRAINS 

STRYCHNIN. 

KO.SCrO,  and 
SO4H  test  (solid). 

CrO:,  and  SO4H 

test  (1-500). 

KO.Mn207  and 
SO4H  test  (1-2000). 

1-100,000. 

Color  -reaction, 
distinct  and 
well-defined. 

Color  of  reac- 
tion, very  fine 
and  distinct. 

Reaction  very 
brilliant  and 
durable. 

1-300,000. 

Reaction  weak 
and  evanes- 
cent. 

Color  fine  and 
distinct. 

Colors  brilliant 
and  reaction 
distinct. 

1-600,000. 

No  reaction. 

Colors  still  de- 
finable, but 
weak. 

Reaction  dis- 
tinct and  col- 
ors fine. 

1-900,000. 

No  reaction. 

Reaction  faint, 
but  succession 
of  colors  well- 
defined. 

1-1.200,000. 

Reaction  very 
faint. 

176 


REACTIONS     OF     FAT     OILS 

(WATT'S    DIG.     CHEM., 


OILS. 

CAUSTIC 
SODA. 
Sp.  Gr., 
1.340. 

SULPHURIC 
ACID. 
Sp.  Gr., 
1.475. 

SULPHURIC 
ACID. 
Sp.  Gr., 
1.530. 

SULPHURIC 
ACID. 
Sp.  Gr., 
1.635. 

NITRIC 
ACID. 
Sp.  Gr,, 
1.180. 

Olive        

Slight 

Green 

Greenish 

Light 

Gallipoli 

yellow. 
Ditto 

tinge. 
Ditto 

white. 
Gray 

green. 

Thick  and 

Dirty  white 

Light 

Pale  Rape-seed  .  . 

white. 
Dirty 

Pink 

brown. 
Brown 

yellowish 
white. 

Ditto. 

Dirty  white. 

Ditto. 

Brownish. 

Gray 

Yellow 

Ditto 

Green 

Greenish. 

Castor          ... 

White. 

tinge. 

Dirty  white. 
Dirty  white 

yellow. 

Hemp-seed.  .... 

Thick 

Intense 

Intense 

Intense 

Dirty 

L  iuseed         

brownish 
yellow. 

Fluid 

green. 
Green. 

green. 
Dirty  green 

green. 
Green 

green. 
Yellow. 

Lard  

yellow. 
Pinkish 

Dirty  white. 

Dirty  white 

Lio-ht 

Neat's-foot  

white. 

Dirty 
yellowish 
white. 

Dark  red 

Yellow 
tinge. 

Light  red 

Brownish 
dirty  white. 

Red 

brown. 
Brown. 

Light 
yellow. 

Slight 

Seal      

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

brown. 
Ditto. 

yellow. 
Pink. 

Cod-liver  

Ditto. 

Purple. 

Purple. 

Ditto 

177 


WITH    ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES 

Vol.    IV,    p.    183.) 


NITRIC 
ACID. 
Sp.  Gr., 
1.220. 

NITRIC 
ACID. 
Sp.  Gr., 
1.33. 

+  CAUSTIC 
SODA. 
Sp.  Gr. 
1.34. 

PHOSPHORIC- 
ACID. 

Syrupy. 

SULPHTTRIC 
ACID  + 
NITRIC 
ACID. 

AQUA 
REGIA. 

+  CAUSTIC 
SODA. 
Sp.  Gr., 
1.340. 

Greenish. 

Greenish. 

Fluid 

Slight  green. 

Orange 

Fluid  white 

Ditto. 

Ditto 

white 
mass. 

Fibrous 

Ditto 

yellow. 
Dark 

mass. 

ditto. 
Ditto 

brown. 

yellowish 
white  mass. 

Fluid  ditto 

white. 
Dark 

white  mass. 

Orange 

Red. 

Li^ht  red 

brown. 

Slight 

yellowish 
white  mass. 

Fluid  intense 

yellow. 
Red. 

Ditto. 

Dark  red. 
Ditto. 

mass. 

Fibrous 
red  mass. 

Fluid  red 
mass  with 

Brown 
yellow. 

yellow. 

Dark 
brown. 

Green  be- 

Yellow. 
Ditto 

rose-colored 
mass. 

Fibrous 
orange  mass. 

brown 
liquor 
underneath. 
Fibrous 

coming 
in  tense  red. 

Brownish 

mass  with 
brown  liquor 
beneath. 
Fibrous  pale 

Greenish 
dirty 
brown. 

Yellow. 

Greenish 
dirty 
brown. 

Green 
becoming 
brown. 

Very  slight 

white 
mass. 

Fibrous 
light  brown 
mass. 

Fluid 
yellow 
mass. 

Fluid 

Green. 

Brown 

yellow 
green. 

red. 

Green 
becoming 
black. 

Ditto. 
Brown. 

Green. 

Greenish 
yellow. 

rose-colored 
mass. 

Fibrous 
light  brown 
mass. 

Fluid  orange 
mass. 

Fluid  pink 

Light 

yellow. 
Lieht 

mass. 
Fibrous 

Dark 

Slight 

mass. 
Fibrous 

yellow. 
Ditto. 

Light  red. 

brown. 
Red. 

Ditto. 
Ditto 

white 
mass. 

Fluid 
mass. 

Ditto. 
Ditto 

Dark  red. 
Ditto. 
Ditto 

brown. 
Ditto. 

Ditto. 
Ditto. 

yellow. 
Ditto. 

Ditto. 
Yellow. 

brownish 
yellow  mass. 

Fluid  orange 
yellow  mass. 

Ditto. 
Dit'to 

178 


SCHEME  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  FATTY 

ARRANGED     BY 


5  vols.  oil  mixed 
with  1  vol.  potash 
lye  of  1'34:  and 
strongly  agitated. 
The  mass  is— 

Snow  white. 
Oil  of  almonds, 
very  good  rape-seed 
oil,  bleached 
olive  oil. 

Yellowish. 
Poppy-seed  oil, 
olive  oil, 
rape-seed  oil, 
sesame  oil. 

Greenish. 
Linseed  oil, 
hemp-seed  oil, 
oils  containing  Cu, 
and  artif.  dyes. 

Mix  in  beaker  care- 
fully equal  vol.  of 
oil  and  red  fuming 
nitric  acid.  A  mid- 
dle zone  forms  on 
point  of  contact. 
This  is 

Narrow  and  light 
green  ;  oil  becomes 
flocculent  and 
opaque. 
Oil  of  almonds. 

Dark-green  ; 
pink  above. 
Poppy-seed  oil. 

Broad  and  beautiful 
light-blue  green. 
Olive  oil. 

Mix  in  a  beaker  the 
oil  with  concen- 
trated sulphuric 
acid.  Layers  where 
oil  and  acid  meet 
are  colored— 

10  drops  of  oil,  2  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

Beautiful  green, 
with  brown  stripes, 
Rape-seed  oil. 

Yellow;  after 
agitating,  brown 
and  olive-green. 
Poppy-seed  oil, 
madia  oil. 

Red,  soon  changing 
to  black,  stripes 
undulating  through 
the  liquid. 
Train  oil. 

In  the  elaidine  test 
the  oil  mass  is— 

Solidified,  crumb- 
ling, and  white. 
Olive  oil,  oil  of 
almonds,  bleached 
rape-seed  oil. 

Solidified, 
crumbling,  and 
yellowish. 
Rape-seed  oil. 

Solidified  and  red. 
Sesame  oil. 

In  boiling  with  wa- 
ter and  oxide  of 
lead  a  plaster  is 
formed,  the  consis- 
tence of  which  is  — 

Solid. 
Olive  oil. 

Smeary. 
Rape-seed  oil, 
oil  of  almonds, 
sesame  oil. 

Smeary,  but  drying 
after  some  time. 
Drying  oils. 

Solubility  of  1  part 
oil  in  alcohol- 

1  :  1 
Castor  oil. 

1  :  25 
Poppy-seed  oil. 

1:30 
Hemp-seed  oil. 

Specific  gravity  of 
oils  is 

0-913 
Poppy-seed  oil, 
and  oil  of  brass, 
nap. 

0-914 
Oil  of  almonds, 
oil  of  brass,  camp. 

0-918 
Olive  oil. 

No.  of  degrees  Centi- 
grade at  which  the 
oils  change  from 
solid  to  liquid 
state. 

—27° 
Hemp-seed  oil. 

—18° 
Castor  oil. 
-f  2°-5+6°  to  +8°. 
Olive  oil,  lard  oil. 

—16°  to  —20° 
Linseed  oil. 
—20°  to  —25° 
Oil  of  almonds. 

NOTE.— See  Amer.  Chem.,  December,  1873. 


179 


OILS    AT    ORDINARY    TEMPERATURES. 

G.     GLASSNER. 


Pink  color. 
Refined  rape-seed  oil. 

Brown  and  stiff. 
Hemp-seed  oil. 

Yellowish-brown 
and  fluid. 
Linseed  oil. 

Red. 
Train  oil. 

Brown-red. 
Cod-liver  oil. 

Green,  red  above. 
Linseed  oil. 

Brown-red, 
greenish  below. 
Rape-seed  oil. 

The  oil  colors 
throughout  red, 
after  some  time. 
Linseed  oiL 

Equal  volumes  oil  and  acid. 


Without  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

With  bisulphide  of 
carbon. 

^  With  20  times  its 
vol.  CS2,  splendid 
violet,  quickly 
changing  to  brown 
coloration. 
Train  oil. 

When  agitated, 
fine  dark-green. 
Rape-seed  oil. 

Green. 
Linseed  oil, 
hemp-seed  oil. 

Red. 
Train  oil. 

Wax-like  and  white. 
Castor  oil. 

The  elaidine  mass 
shows  oil  drops 
and  stripes. 
Oil  mixtures  con- 
taining drying  oils. 

Unchanged. 
Linseed  oil, 
poppy-seed  oil, 
nut  oil. 

Ethereal  oils,  added 
to  the  olive  to 
correct  the  smell, 
float  on  the  elaidine. 

1:40 
Linseed  oil. 

1:60 
Oil  of  almonds. 

0-923 
Sesame  oil. 

0-924 
Sunflower  oil. 

0-950  —  0-70 
Castor  oil. 

0-930 
Linseed  oil. 

—16° 
Sunflower  oil. 

—6° 
Oil  of  brass,  napus. 

^0° 
Oil  of  brass,  camp. 

—5° 
Sesame  oil. 

180 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


FAT  OILS. 

The  following  table*  exhibits  a  list  of  the  principal  vegeta- 
ble fat  oils,  together-  with  their  specific  gravities  and  solidify- 
ing points.  The  specific  gravity  marked  with  an  asterisk  are 
according  to  the  determinations  (taken  as  15°  C.)  by  Cloey 
(Bull.  Soc.  Chem.  1865,  p.  46) ;  the  rest  and  the  solidifying 
points  are  taken  from  Gmelin's  Handbook.  The  numbers  in 
the  last  column  denote  the  temperatures  at  which  the  oils 
become  perfectly  solid ;  nearly  all  of  them,  however,  become 
viscous  or  semi-solid  at  temperatures  somewhat  higher. 


NAME  OF  OIL. 

NAME  OP  PLANT  WHICH 
YIELDS  IT. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

SOLIDIFYING  POINT. 

1.  BUYING  OIL. 
Cress  seed  oil  
Oil  of  deadly  night-  \ 
shade                    \ 

Lepidium  sativum.... 
Atropa  belladonna.  ... 

Camelina  sativa  

0.924 
0.925 

0.93075* 

0.9231 
0.9202 
0.93075* 
0.9232 
0.93515* 
0.9286  at  15° 
0.92702* 
0.92504* 
0.9312 
0.926 
0.9283 
0.904 
0.9232 
0.92878* 
0.9358 

0.91844* 
0.923 
0.917 

0.942 

-15°  C. 

-27.5° 

-19° 

-15° 
-11° 

-27.5° 
below  —15° 
below  —20° 
below      10° 

Oil     of     gold     of) 
pleasure  seed.  .  .  f 
Gourd-seed  oil 

Cucurbita  peps  

Grape  seed  oil  
Hemp  -seed  oil 

Vitis  vinif  era  

Oil  of  honesty  
Linseed  oil  

Hesperis  matronalis.  .  . 
Linum  usitatissimum  . 
Madia  sativa      

Poppy  oil  

Papaver  somnif  erum.  . 
Belianthus  aunuus  .  .  . 
Pinus  sylvestus  

-18° 
-16° 
-30° 

below  -15° 

-15° 

-18° 
below  -15° 

-21° 

-17.5° 
+  10° 

+  5° 

+  5  to  2.5° 
-18° 

-6.25° 

Sunflower  oil 

Oil  of  Scotch  fir  seed 
Oil  of  silver  fir  cones 
Oil  of  spruce  fir  
Fatty  oil  of  spruce  fir 
Tobacco-seed  oil.  ... 
Walnut  or  nut  oil  .  . 
W^ld  seed  oil 

Abies  picea  dec 

Abies  excelsa  dec  

Nicotiana  tabacum.  .  .  . 
Juglans  regia     . 

Reseda  luteola     .    ... 

NON-DRYING  OILS. 

(Vegetable.) 
Almond  oil 

Amygdalus  communis. 
Fagus  sylvatica 

Beech-nut  oil         . 

Oil  from  seed  of  .... 
Oil  from  seed  of  .... 

Oil  from  seed  of  ... 
Castor  oil     .  . 

Butea  frondosa  
$  Calophyllum    ino-[ 
(     phyllum    ) 

Canarium  commune  .  . 

Ricinus  communis  .... 
Gossypium  barbadeuse 
j  Brassica     campes-  ) 
(     tris  oleifera.  .  .  .  ) 

0.9639* 
0.9306 

0.9136  at  15° 

Cotton-seed  oil  

Colza  oil 

*  Watt's  Die.  Chem.,  vol.  iv,  p.  180. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


181 


FAT   OILS— (Continued). 


NAME  or  OIL. 

NAME  OF  PLANT  WHICH 
YIELDS  IT. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

SOLIDIFYING  POINT. 

Croton  oil         

Croton  tiglium  

0  94263* 

Oil  of  cyperus  -grass. 

j  Cyperus    esculen-  \ 
{     tus  (root)  y 

0.918 

Oil  of  Daphne....) 
Oleum     seminum  > 
coccognidii  ) 
Earth  nut  oil  

Daphne  mezereum  
Arachis  hypogcea;  .... 

0.914-0.921 
0918 

Ergot  oil 

Secale  cornutum 

0  922 

37& 

Hazel-nut  oil 

Corylus  avellana      .    . 

0  91987* 

—19° 

Henbane-seed  oil  ... 
Horse-chestnut  oil.  . 

Hyoscyamus  nigra  
\  jEsculus      hippo-  ) 
")     castanum             C 

0.913* 
0.915 

+  8° 

Mesua  oil            .  .    . 

Mesua  ferrera            . 

0  954 

+  5° 

Black  mustard  oil.  . 

Sinapis  nigra  

0  92102* 

below  0° 

White  mustard  oil.  . 

Sinapis  alba  

0  93383* 

does  not  solidify. 

Oil  from  seed  of 

Nigella  sativa 

0  92 

+  2° 

Oil  from  root  and  ) 

Pinus  quadrif  olia  

0.935 

Parsley  oil 

Petroselinum  sativum. 

1  078  at  12° 

f  becomes  turbid 
\  at    —12°,    but 

Plum-kernel  oil.  ... 
Oil  from  seed  of 

Prunus  domestica  
Pougamia  glabia 

0.9127 
0  915 

|  does  not  solid- 

Ufy. 

-8.7° 

+  8° 

Summer  rape-seed  ) 

Brassica  pro3cox  .... 

0  91555* 

oil  f 

"Winter  rape-seed  oil 

Brassica  napus         .  .  . 

0  91648* 

a  little  below  0° 

Sesame  oil   
Spindle-tree  oil  
Spurge  oil 

Sesamum  orientale.  .  .  . 
Euonymus  europosus. 
Euphorbia  lathyris.  .  . 

0.92415* 
0.95717* 
0  92613* 

-5° 
-12°  to  -15° 
-11-1-° 

Oil  from  seed  of 

Sterculia  f  OBtida     .... 

0  923 

below  +3° 

Oil    from  various  } 

Thea  and  camellia.  .  . 

0.927 

j  forms  an  eimil- 
(     sion  at  4.5° 

The  following  table  *  exhibits  the  rotary  power  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  volatile  oils,  together  with  their  refractive 
indices  A,  D  and  H,  as  determined  by  Gladstone  (Chem.  Soc. 
J.,  xvii,  3).  Also  their  specific  gravities.  The  rotary  power 
was  determined  for  a  column  of  liquid  10  inches  long ;  the  same 
length  of  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  cane-sugar  and  w^ater 
produced  a  deviation  of  +105°. 


*  Watt's  Die.  Chem.,  vol.  iv,  p.  185. 


182 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


SPECIFIC     GRAVITIES    AND     OPTICAL     PROPERTIES     OF 
ESSENTIAL    OILS. 


CRUDE  OILS. 

SPECIFIC 
GKAVITY 

AT 

15°.5  C. 

REFRACTIVE  INDICES. 

ROTATION. 

Temp. 

A. 

D. 

H. 

.9852 
1.0425 

.8808 
.8825 
.8804 
.9005 
.9203 
.9388 
.9410 
.8845 
.9121 
.8832 
.8956 
1.0297 
.9622 
.8584 
.8908 
.8847 
1.0475 
.8775 
.9414 
.8922 
.8584 
.8812 
.9322 
.9043 
.8903 
.8498 
.8932 
.8766 
.9030 
.9016 
.9342 
.9105 
.8911 
1.0189 
.8789 
.8743 
.8826 
.9069 
.8509 
.8864 
.9926 
.9554 
.9592 
1.0119 
.9028 

16°.  5 
14° 
18°.5 
22° 
26°.5 
8° 
25°.  5 
10° 
11° 
19° 
10° 
10°.5 
10° 
19°.  5 
23° 
18° 
21° 
15°.5 
17° 
10° 
10° 
11°.5 
8°.5 
13°.  5 
13°.5 
21°.5 
20° 
16°.5 
24° 
13°.5 
9° 
9° 
19° 
14°.  5 
14° 
7°.5 
18° 
10° 
24° 
16° 
20° 
20° 
8°.5 
21° 
21° 
14° 
14°.5 

1.5433 
1.5172 
1.4944 
1.4559 
1.4547 
1.4851 
1.4561 
1.4965 
1.4843 
1.4601 
1.4829 

1.5566 
1.5274 
1.5022 
1.4625 
1.4614 
1.4921 
1.4611 
1.5031 
1.4911 
1.4671 
1.4903 
1.4784 
1.4918 
1.5748 
1.5035 
1.4731 
1.4659 
1.4665 
1.5312 
1.4652 
1.5011 
1.4834 
1.4749 
1.4788 
1.4718 
1.4714 
1.4648 
1.4727 
1.4705 
1.4837 
1.4712 
1.4772 
1.4840 
1.4822 
1.4680 
1.5278 
1.4676 
1.4741 
1.4709 
1.4818 
1.4699 
1.4774 
1.5162 
1.5050 
1.5040 
1.5132 
1.4670 

1.6118 
1.5628 
1.5420 
1.4779G 
1.4760G. 
1.5172 
1.4778 
15204G. 
1.5144 
1.4886 
1.5142 

1.5158 
1.6243G. 
1.5238 
1.4952 
1.4866 
1.4875 
1.5666 
1.4805G. 
1.5160G. 
1.5072 
1.4965 
1.5021 
1.4909 
1.4868G. 
1.4862 
1.4946 

'1.5642" 
1.4901 
1.4971 
1.5015G. 
1.5037 
1.4879 
1.5472G. 
1.4835G. 
1.4831F. 
1.4934 
1.5053 
1.4916 
1.4980 
1.5417G. 
1.5194G. 
1.5183G. 
1.5202F. 
1.4854 

—     1° 

+     7° 
—     6° 
+  23° 
+  40° 
+  38° 
0° 
+  43°.5 
+  42°? 
+  63° 

+  26° 
0° 
+     3° 
+  156° 

—     4° 
—     1° 
—     4° 
+  21°  ? 

+  206° 
+   14°.5 
-136° 
+     4° 
-     4° 
-  20° 
+  164° 
+     3°? 
0° 
+  26° 
+  11° 
-116° 
-  13° 
+  21° 
-136° 
+  15° 
+  28° 
+  44° 
+     9° 
+   32°? 
+  216° 
-     9° 

-120° 

-  72° 

Atlierosperma  moschatum 
Bay  .                         

'  '        Florence        • 

Birch-bark  

Calamus        

"      Hamburg 

Caraway  

"      Hamburg,  1st  dist. 
"            "          2d  dist. 

1.4844 
1.5602 
1.4978 
1.4671 
1.4599 
1.4604 
1.5213 
1.4592 
1.4953 
1.4764 
1.4686 
1.4717 
1.4661 
1.4653 
1.4585 
1.4667 

l!4756 
1.4665 
1.4710 
1.4767 
1.4756 
1.4623 
1.5196 
1.4614 
1.4673 
1.4644 
1.4749 
1.4633 
1.4707 
1.5068 
1.4990 
1.4980 
1.5074 
1.4612 

Cedar  

Cedrat                          

Citronella  .    .         

"        Penang 

Cloves  

Coriander                •  • 

Cubebs  

Dill           

Elder    

Eucalyptus  amygdalina.  . 
*'           oleosa  

Indian  Geranium  

Lemon  

Lemon  grass            .    ... 

"       Penang  

Melaleuca  ericifolia  
"           linarifolia 

Mint   

Myrtle          

Myrrh    

Neroli  

« 

Nutmeg            

"          Penang  

Orange-peel                       . 

"          "   Florence  
Parsley                 

Patchouli  

"         Penang 

"        French. 

Peppermint    .    

THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


183 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES,  ETC.,  OF  ESSENTIAL  OILS  (Continued). 


CRUDE  OILS. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 

AT 

15°.5  C. 

REFRACTIVE  INDICES. 

ROTATION. 

Temp. 

A. 

D. 

H. 

Peppermint,  Florence  

.9116 
.8765 
.8912 
.9080 
.9064 
.9750 
.8843 
.8727 
.8812 
1.1423 
.9122 

14° 
21° 

25° 
16°.5 
17° 
24° 
19° 
13° 
20° 
15° 
18° 

1.4628 
1.4536 
1.4567 
1.4632 
1.4843 
1.4959 
1.4695 
1.4672 
1.4791 
1.5163 
1.4631 

1.4682 
1.4600 
1.4627 
1.4688 
1.4903 
1.5021 
1.4754 
1.4732 
1.4870 
1.5278 
1.4688 

1.4867 
1.4808 
1.4835 
1.4867 
1.5113 
1.5227 
14909G. 
1.4938 
1.5059G. 
1.5737 
1.4756F. 

-  44° 
+  26° 

IJ-  0 

+  17° 
-  16° 
-  50° 

-  79° 
-     6° 
+     3° 

Rose  .      .         .... 

Rosemary  

Sandalwood 

Thyme  

Verbena 

Wintergreen  

Wormwood  

SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES,  BOILING  POINTS,  AND  OPTICAL 
PROPERTIES  OF  HYDROCARBONS  FROM  ESSENTIAL 
01 LS.*— (GLADSTONE.) 


SOURCE  OE  HYDROCARBON. 

<§£°' 
•3'>Ss 

S-12 

02O  « 

tuo 

B-tJ 

•  —  £3 

l£ 

Refractive 
Index  A  at 
20°  C. 

i 

s* 

Sensitive- 
ness. 

0> 

o  >  • 

fjjjZ 

£|! 

i 

8460 

174°  C 

14645 

0277 

.0048 

.549 

+  154° 

"    "  Florence. 

8468 

174° 

14650 

0281 

.0049 

5491 

+  260° 

Cedrat  

8466 

173° 

1  4650 

0280 

.0049 

5492 

+  180° 

Lemon  

.8468 

173° 

14660 

•0280 

.0049 

.5502 

+  172° 

Bergamo!           .  . 

8466 

175° 

14619 

0295 

0049 

5456 

+  76° 

8464 

176° 

1  4602 

0287 

.0048 

5437 

+  82° 

8466 

173° 

14614 

0291 

.0047 

.5450 

+  76° 

Petit  grain     .  .  . 

8470 

174° 

1  4617 

0282 

0046 

5439 

+  60° 

Caraway,  Hamburg,  Istdist. 
Dill  

.8466 

8467 

176° 
173° 

1.4645 
1.4646 

.0286 
0288 

.0048 
.0046 

.5486 
.5486 

+  180° 

+  242° 

8467 

172° 

1.4652 

0305 

.0049 

.5494 

+  0° 

Elder  

8468 

172° 

14631 

0269 

0047 

.5468 

+15° 

Bay.  . 

8508 

171° 

1.4542 

0260 

0047 

.5338 

-22° 

Gaultherilene   . 

8510 

168° 

1  4614 

0271 

0049 

.5422 

Nutmeg    

8518 

167° 

14630 

0284 

0047 

.5435 

+  49° 

.  "    Penang  
Carverie      

.8527 
8530 

166° 
166° 

1.4634 
14610 

.0274 
0261 

.0049 
0048 

.5434 
.5440 

+  4° 
—20° 

"    Hamburg,  2d  dist. 
\Vormwood      . 

.8545 
8565 

160° 

1.4641 
14590 

.0263 
0253 

.0048 
0047 

.5431 
.5359 

+  86° 
+  46° 

Terebene  

8583 

160° 

1  4670 

0275 

.0048 

.5440 

0° 

Anise  

8580 

160° 

1  4607 

0268 

.9047 

.5368 

Mint  .        ... 

8600 

160° 

14622 

0255 

0048 

.5374 

+  30° 

Peppermint  . 

.8602 

175° 

1.4577 

.0267 

.0047 

.5321 

-60° 

184 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES,  ETC.,  HYDROCARBONS— (Continued.) 


SOURCE  OP  HYDROCARBON. 

ggo 

§  g§ 

oROa 

£i 

II 

Refractive 
Index  A  at 
20°  C. 

Dispersion 
at  20°  C. 

Sensitive- 
ness. 

Specific 
Refractive 
Energy. 

Rotation. 

Laurel  turpentine 

8618 

160° 

1  4637 

0260 

0047 

RJQQA 

i  04° 

Thyme  

8635 

160° 

14617 

0282 

0048 

ftjQAft 

75° 

Turpentine    I 

8644 

160° 

1  4612 

noptn 

004-7 

Ftqqrr 

,  40° 

II 

8555 

160° 

1  4590 

025(1 

0047 

KQfi*; 

07° 

III  

8614 

160° 

1  4621 

0249 

fcQfU 

Q0° 

IV  

8600 

160° 

1  4613 

0254 

0047 

5364 

QQ° 

Eucalyptus  amygdalene  .  .  . 
Myrtle 

8642 
8690 

171° 
163° 

1.4696 
1  4565 

.0323 

0248 

.0049 
0047 

.5434 
RortQ 

-142a 

4-fi4-° 

Parsley  

8732 

160° 

1  4665 

noqi 

004fi 

*i355 

44-° 

Rosemary  

8805 

163° 

1  4583 

0241 

0046 

)X005 

4-8° 

9041 

249° 

14898 

0284 

0045 

5417 

Rosewood  

.9042 

249° 

1  4878 

0277 

0045 

5395 

11° 

Cubebs 

9062 

260° 

1  4950 

0302 

0041 

pjAfiO 

5Q° 

Calamus  ... 

9180 

260° 

1  4930 

0322 

0042 

5370 

+  55° 

"        Hamburg.  . 

9275 

260° 

1  4976 

0337 

0043 

5365 

+  22° 

Cascarilla  

9212 

254° 

1  4926 

0307 

0042 

5347 

+  72° 

Patchouli  

9211 

254° 

1  4966 

0274 

0042 

5391 

(<         Penang         . 

9278 

257° 

1  4963 

0275 

0044 

534Q 

on0 

"         French  

9255 

260° 

1  5009 

0262 

.0042 

5412 

Colophene                 .       .    . 

9391 

315° 

1  5084 

0309 

0041 

5413 

0° 

*  This  table  exhibits  the  densities  and  optical  properties  of  a  consider- 
able number  of  polymeric  hydrocarbons.  The  oils  are  arranged  according 
to  their  specific  gravities  at  20°  C.  The  column  headed  "Dispersion  at 
20°  C.,"  gives  the  difference  between  the  refractive  indices  of  the  lines 
H  and  A.  The  "sensitiveness"  is  the  amount  of  diminution  of  the  refrac- 
tive index  when  the  temperature  rises  10°;  it  is  calculated  for  the  line  A. 
The  "Specific  refractive  energy"  is  the  refractive  index  minus  unity, 
divided  by  the  density.  In  this  table  it  is  taken  for  A  ;  that  is,  the  column 

represents  —. -^—.     (Watt's  Die.  Chem.,  vol.  iv,  p.  187.) 

Gladstone  proposes  (Chem.  Soc.  J.  [2],  x,  i)  to  distinguish  the  several 
hydrocarbons  by  the  following  names  : 

Hydrocarbon  from  Bay Laurylene. 

"  "      Calamus Calamene. 

"     Dill Anethene. 

"  "     Elder Sambucene. 

"  "     Eucalyptus  amygdalina .  Eucalyptene. 

"  "     Myrtle Myrtene. 

'•  "     Nutmeg Myristicene. 

"  "     Rosewood Rhodine. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


185 


TABLE  OF  OFFICIAL  TESTS  FOR  IMPURITIES  IN 
PHARMACOPGEIAL  PREPARATIONS, 

ATTFIELD'S  TABLE. 


NAME  OF  PREPARATION. 

IMPURITIES. 

TEST. 

Acaciss  Gummi     

Starch           

Iodine. 
j-  Quantitative  Analysis. 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen. 
BaCl2  orBa2NO3. 
AgN03. 
Nascent  Hydrogen. 
Nascent  Hydrogen. 
Insolubility  in  Alcohol. 
H2S. 
Acetate  of  K. 
BaCl2  or  Ba2N03. 
Incineration. 
Gelatine. 
BaCL  or  Ba2NO3. 
H2S. 
Nascent  Hydrogen. 
BaCU  or  Ba2NO3. 
AgNO3  insoluble  in  HN03. 
Evaporation  and  ignition. 
BaCl2  or  Ba2NO3. 
AgN03. 
Incineration. 
H0S. 
BaCl2  or  Ba2No3. 
AgN03  and  HNO3. 
Albumen. 
FeSo4  and  H2SO4. 
Corrosive  Sublimate. 
Evaporate  and  ignite. 
FeS04. 
H2S. 
Incineration. 
H2S. 
CaS04. 

Ammonia  Oxalate. 

a             <  i 

Incineration, 
Incineration. 
AgN03. 
Iodine. 
Boiling-point  and  Sp.  Gr.. 
Sp.  Gr. 
Opalescence  on  dilution. 
Anhydrous  CuSO4. 
Boiling-point  and  Sp.  Gr. 
Yellow  or  Red  Prussiate. 

Acetum  • 

More  than  one  thou- 

Acidum    Aceticum  — 
Acetic  Acid  | 

sanatn  rl2r>U4  
Traces  of  Pb  or  Cu.  .  . 
H.,80, 

HC1    

Acid.  Acetic.  Glac  
Acidum  Boracicum  .  .  . 

Acidum  Citricum  j 
Acidum  Gallicum 

Sulphurous  Acid. 

Sulphurous  Acid  .... 

Alkaline  Salts 

Traces  of  Cu.  or  Pb.  . 
Tartaric  Acid  

Sulphuric  Acid 

Mineral  Matter.  .  .  . 

Tannic  Acid  

Acidum  Hydrochlori- 

cum                         . 

Sulphuric  Acid 

Arsenic        . 

Sulphurous  Acid  

Acidum  Hydrocyani- 
cum  Dilutum  

Hydrochloric  Acid  .  .  . 
Mineral  Matter  

Acidum  Nitricum  ,  .  .  • 
Acidum  Oxalicum  .... 

Acidum     Phosphori- 
cum  Dilutum  

Sulphuric  Acid  

Hydrochloric  Acid  .  .  . 
Mineral  Matter  

Pb  or  Pt  

Sulphuric  Acid 

Hydrochloric  Acid  .  .  . 
Meta  phosphoric  Acid. 
Nitric  Acid 

Acidum  Sulphuricum  • 
Acidum  Tannicum  

Acidum  Tartaricum  .  -j 
Aconitia  

Phosphorous  Acid.  .  .  . 
Mineral  Matter  

As  or  Pb 

Mineral  Matter  
Metallic  Matter,  as  Pb 
Oxalic  Acid        .          . 

Calcium  Tartrate  
Calcium  Sulphate.  .  .  , 
Mineral  Matter     .    .  . 

Mineral  Matter  

Adeps  Preparatus  .  .  .  | 
Mtlier  

NaCl 

Starch  (flour)  

^Jtlier  purus  

Alcohol  and  Water  .  . 
Resin  or  Oil  

Alcohol  Amylicum  
Alum.  . 

Water  

Other  Spirit.  Matter  . 
Iron  (Sulphate).  . 

186 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NAME  OF  PREPARATION. 

IMPURITIES. 

TEST. 

Ammonia  Benzoas.  .  .  . 

Fixed  Salts  .    .  . 

Non-volatility 

I 

Fixed  Salts  

Non-volatility 

Ammoniae  Carbonas..  •< 
Ammonia?  Chi  or  id  um 

Ammonium  Sulphate. 
Chloride. 
Fixed  Salts  

BaClo  or  Ba2N03. 

AgN03. 
Non-volatility 

( 

Alkaline  Matter  

Red  Litmus 

Amylum  •< 

( 
Antimonium  Nigrum 

Silica 

Blue  Litmus. 
Insoluble  in  HC1 

Antimonii  Oxidum.  .  .  . 
Antimoniu.ni  Tartrate. 

Higher  Oxides  of  Sb.. 
General  

Tartrate  of  K. 
Quantitative  Analysis 

Aqua  Aurantic  Floris. 

Pb.Cu.Sn  

H2S 

Fixed  Salts  

Evaporation  and  Ignition. 

Sn,  Pb,  andCu  
Calcium  Salts    

H,S! 

Ammonium  Oxalate 

Aqua  Distillata  J 

AgNO3. 

BaClo  orBa2NO3. 

[ 

Carbonates 

Lime  \Vater 

Argenti  Nitras    .   ... 

Other  Nitrates  etc  .  . 

Quantitative  Analysis 

Metallic  Silver  

Effervescence  with  HN03. 

Argenti  Oxidum  -j 

General       . 

Quantitative  Analvsis 

Argentum  Purificatum 

Copper  .              ... 

NH4HO  to  HNO    solution 

Atropia 

Mineral  Matter  .  . 

Incineration 

Atropia3  Sulphas  .  .    .  . 

Mineral  Matter  

Incineration. 

Balsamum    Peruvia-  j 

Fixed  Oil...    j 

Invisibility  with  Alcohol. 

num.                     ...  "/ 

Alcohol     .             .  .  .   j 

Non-diminution  of  volume 

Beberise  Sulphas  . 

Mineral  Matter  

when  mixed  with  Water. 
Incineration. 

Bismuth  Carbonas.  .  .  •< 

Bismuth  Subnitras.  .  -j 
Bismuthum  Purifica-) 

Bi3NO3orNH4NO3.. 
Lead  Carbonate  
Oxy  chloride  of  Bi  .... 
Oxynitrate  of  Pb  
Oxychloride  of  Bi.... 

Indigo  Sulphate. 
Dilute  H3S04. 
AgN03. 
Dilute  H3S04. 

AgNO3. 

NH4HO  to  HNO3  solution. 

Borax 

General   

Quantitative  Analysis 

General  

Sp  Gr  Boilino--  point. 

Bromum  •> 

( 

Zinc  Iodide    ( 

KHO  in   excess    then  sul- 

Cadmii  lodidum 

phydrate  of  NH4 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Ca  Hypochlorite 

Quantitative  Analysis 

Calcii  Chlpridum  

Carbonic  Oxide  

HC1 

Calcis  Carbonas  Pre-  j 

Al2O3,FeO  and  Phos- 
phates 

Saccharine  solution  of  CaO 
to  solution  in  HNO 

cipitata  "j 

A  r,.~M"ri    i  "trivn 

( 
Calcis  Phosphas      .    •< 

Carbonate  of  Ca.  ..... 

Effervesces  with  Acids. 
Solution  of  Potash 

Sand  

Insoluble  in  Acids 

Calx  -j 

Carbonate  of  Ca  ....  J 

Effervesces  with  Acids. 
Saccharine  solution  of  Lime 

Calxchlorata 

A1.203,  FeO,  etc  j 
General                 . 

to  solution  in  Acids. 
Quantitative  Analysis 

Camboeria  . 

Starch.  . 

Iodine  (ffreen). 

THE    CHEMIST'S    MANUAL. 


187 


NAME  OF  PREPARATION. 

IMPURITIES. 

TEST. 

Camphora             .      .  . 

Fixed  Salts 

Non-vol  atility 

Carbo  Animalis  Puri-  { 

Earthy  Salts  .            \ 

Incineration  by  help  of  red 

oxide  of  Kg. 

Carbo  Ligni     ... 

More  than  2%  Ash 

Incineration 

Catechu  Pallidum  .... 

Starch  

Iodine. 

Cera  Alba             

Soft  Fats         .  .       •  .  . 

Melting  point 

Soft  Fats  

Melting  point 

Soluble  in  Alcohol. 

Flour 

Insoluble  in  Turpentine. 
Iodine 

/~1QT.i   rWalaa 

Carbonate  and  Oxa-  j 
lates  ( 

Ash,  soluble  in  acids  with 
effervescence. 

Alumina  ( 

Ins.  of  Hydrate  in  NH4HO 

I 

General  -\ 

More  or  less  of  48  per  cent 

Soft  Fats  

Ash. 
Melting  point. 

( 

Specific  Gravity 

Chloroform  .  .         .  .  .  •< 

Hydrocarbons            . 

Sulphuric  Acid 

Copaiba/.    •  .  •           .  . 

Non-volatile  matter.  .  , 
Wood  Oil                    ] 

Residue  on  evaporation. 
Gelatinous  at  270°  F. 

Carbolic  Acid  -j 

Incomplete  sol.  in  Benzol. 
Oxidation. 
Non-vol.  at  212°  F. 
Dextro  rotation   of    Polar- 

Cupri Sulphas          .  .  • 

Ferrous  SulphatB 

ized  ray. 
Crystallization  on  cooling. 
HNO3  and  NH4HO 

I 

Chalk     

Effervesces  with  Acids. 

Elatrium  •< 

( 

Fel  Bovinum  Purifi-) 
catum  ) 

Mucus,  crude  bile.  .  .  . 

Incomplete  sol.  in  Spirit. 

Ferri  Arsenias  •] 
' 

Sodium  Sulphate.  .  .  . 
General 

BaCl3  or  Ba2N03. 
Quantitative  Analysis 

Ferri  Carbonas  Saccha- 

UNH-^SO- 

BaCl3  or  Ba2NO 

rata 

(  General     

Quantitative  Analvsis 

Tartrate  of  Fe  and( 
NH,  .                     .  1 

Ebullition  with  KHO  and 
saturated  with  H20.  5  = 

Citras  1 

KHC4H406. 

K  or  Na  Salts  

Alkalinity  of  Ash. 

r 

K  or  Na  Salts 

Alkalinity  of  Ash. 

General  

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Ferri  Oxidum  Magneti- 

Other  Alkaloids....  j- 

Insolubility  of  precipitated 
Alkaloid  in  Ether. 
Effervesces  with  Acids. 

cum     

}  General  

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Ferri  Peroxidum  Hu- 
miduin              . 

j  Ferrous  Hydrate  
(  Ferric  Oxy  hydrate.  . 

Acid  solution. 
Insol.  in  cold,  dilute  HC1. 

Ferri  Phosphas  -\ 

Ferri  Arsenias  j 

Slip   of    Cu  in  Acid  solu- 
tion. 

General 

Quantitative  Analvsis. 

188 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NAME   OF  PREPARATION. 

IMPURITIES. 

TEST. 

Ferric  Sulphas    .  .  .  .  ^| 

f  Ferric  Oxysulphate. 

Insoluble  in  H2O. 

Ferri  Sulphas           .    /• 

•I  Ferric  Compounds.  •] 

Precipitate  of  S  in  aqueous 

Granulata            .  .  .  .  J 

[_  Copper,  &c  

solution  by  H2S. 
H2S. 

Less  than  50$ 

Quantitative  Analysis 

Ferrum  Tartaratum.  -I 

Ferrous  Compounds.. 
Ammoniacal  Salts.  .  .  . 
General    

Red  Prussiate  to  Acid  soL 
Soda. 
Quantitative  Analysis 

Specific  Gravity. 

Hydrargyri   lodidum) 

Fixed  Salts 

Non-volatility 

Rubrum                 .  .  f 

Hydrargyri   lodidum} 

Red  Iodide  

Insoluble  in  Ether 

Viride         j 

Hydrargyri    Oxidum 
Rubrum                 .  . 

Fixed  Salts,  Nitrate) 

Non-  volatility.    Orange  va- 
por on  heating  in  tube. 

Hydrargyri   Subchlo- 
ridum                 .... 

Corrosive  Sublimate.. 
Fixed  Salts  

Treatment  with  Ether. 
Non-volatility. 

Hydrarffyri  Sulplias 

Fixed  Salts     

Non-volatility. 

Hydrargyrum  
Hydrargyrum  Ammo  ) 

Pb,  Sn,  Zn,  Bi,  Cu  .  .  . 
Fixed  Salts 

Non-volatility. 
Non-volatility 

niatum      .         .  .  .  .  C 

Hydrargyrum      Cum  [ 

Mercuric  Oxide  •] 

Stannous  Chloride  to  solu- 

Creta       ) 

tion  in  HC1. 

Fixed  Salts 

Non-volatility 

Cyanide  of  Iodine  .... 

Physical  characteristics. 

General    

Quantitative  Analysis 

Resin               .     .     .  . 

Soluble  in  Turpentine 

Limonis  Succus  -j 

Deficiency    of    Citric  ) 
Acid    J 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

General 

Sp   Gr  and  Quant  Anal 

General  impurity  or  ) 
deficiency  \ 

Sp.  Gr.  and  Quant.  Anal. 

(NH,)-CO,. 

Lime  Water. 

Calcium  Salts 

Oxalate  of  Ammonia. 

Liquor        Ammoniae  J 

Iron  Salts         

Sulphydrate  of  Ammonium. 

Fortior     

Sulphur  Salts  j 
NH4C1  

Ammonio  Sulphate  of  Cop- 
per. 
AgNOs  to  Acid  solution. 

(NHA,S(X. 

Bad  2  to  Acidified  solution. 

Liquor  Antimonii  Chlo- 
ridi        

Liquor  Arsenicalis.  .  .  . 
Liquor  Arsenici  Hydro- 
cliloricus        ....... 

[General     impurity  ) 
f      or  deficiency.  .  .  .  ) 

Specific  Gravity  and  Quan- 
titative Analysis. 

Liquor     Bismutlii    et 
Ammonise  Citrate.  ,  . 
Li<  i  uor  Calcis 

Deficiency  in  strength 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Liq.  Calcis  Chloratae.  ) 
Liquor  Calcis  Saccha-  s 

General  impurity  or  ) 
deficiency  .  .         .  .  f 

Specific  Gravity. 
Quantitative  Analysis. 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


189 


NAME  OP  PREPABATION. 

IMPURITIES. 

TEST. 

General  quality  

Specific  Gravity. 

Fixed  matter     .  .       . 

Residue  on  evaporation 

Liquor  Ferri  Perchlo- 
ride  Fort  

Deficiency  in  strength 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Liquor    Ferri     Perni- 
trates  

i-  General     impurity  ) 

Specific  Gravity  and  Quan- 

Liquor   Ferri    Persul- 
phates          

or  deficiency  j" 

titative  Analysis. 

Liquor      Hydrargyri  ) 
Nitric  Acid            .  J 

Deficiency  in  strength 
Mercurous  Salts 

Specific  Gravity. 

Liquor  Lithiae  Eifer-  [ 
vescens         \ 

General  impurity  or  [ 

Specific  Gravity. 
Quantitative  Analysis. 

Liquor  Magnesia  Car-  {_ 
bonas           

Other  Mg  Salts  j 

Bitter     taste     (MgCl2     or 

MgSOA 

Liquor  Plumbi  Sub- 
acetatis 

General  impurity  or  ) 
deficiency  C 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

General  impurity  or  ) 
deficiency                 C 

Specific  Gravity  and  Quan- 
titative Analysis. 

General  impurity  or  [ 
deficiency  f 

Specific  Gravity  and  Quan- 
titative Analysis. 

K2CO3  

Effervesces  Acids  CaSHO. 

Liquor  PotasssB  •< 

Calcium  Salts  

Oxalate  of  Ammonia. 

Liquor  Potassse  Ef-    ] 

[Silica  
More  than  !g  }  } 

tracesof]  Chlorides 
[Alumina. 
Deficient  in  strength. 
Na  Bicarbonate  

\  Insoluble    in    Acid    after 
1      evaporation. 
BaCl2  or  Ba2NO3. 
AgNO3  to  Acid  solution. 
Ammonia  to  Acid  solution. 
Quantitative  Analysis. 
Tartaric  Acid,  etc. 

Gen  imp  or  def  .... 

Sp.  Gr.  and  Quant.  Anal. 

Ammonia  Oxalate. 

Na  CO 

Eflerves.  Acids  and  Ca2HO. 

More   f  Silica 

Insol.  in  Acids  after  evap. 

Liquor    Sodse    Chlo-  ( 

than  J  Sulphates  
traces  j  Chlorides.  .  .  . 
of      [  Alumina  
Salts  of  K  or  NH4  .  .  . 
Gen   imp  or  def         . 

Bad  2  to  Acid  solution. 
AgN03  to  Acid  solution. 
Ammonia  to  Acid  solution. 
Perchloride  of  Pt  to  Acids. 
Sp.  Gr.  and  Quant.  Anal. 

ratas                   •         1 

Calcium  salts  ....... 

Ammonia  Oxalate. 

Liquor   Sodae    Effer-  j 
vescens                      ( 

Deficient  in  strength  . 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

LitliiaB  Carbonas        .  •< 

Gen.  imp.  or  def  

Quantitative  Analysis. 
Ammonia  Oxalate,  etc. 

Lime-water,  etc. 

Lithiae  Citras  

Deficient  in  strength. 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

MgCos  

Effervesces  with  Acids. 

Magnesia  j 
Magnesia  Levis  .  .  .  .  ") 

Ca2HO  or  CaCO3  

Ammonia  Oxalate,  etc. 

f 

MgSO4  orNa2SO4... 

Ammonia  to  Acid  solution. 

Magnesia  Carbonas  .  .  I 

MgS04  orNa2SO4... 
OaCO 

Bad  2  to  Acid  solution. 
H9O.O  to  NH  jHO  solution. 

Magnesia  Carb.  Levis  j 

Fe  Pb  etc     

HoSto  Acid  sol.  +  NH4HO. 

( 

Gen.  imp.  or  def  

Quantitative  Analysis. 

190 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NAME  OF  PBEPABATION. 

IMPUKITIES. 

TEST. 

I 

CaSo4.. 

Ammonia  Oxalate 

Magnesias  Sulphas      •< 

FeS04                    

Chlorinated  NaO 

General  impurity.  .  .  . 
Deficiency  of  Mannite 

Quantitative  Analysis. 
Quantitative  Analysis 

Mel     

Starch  (flour) 

Iodine 

Morphiae  Hydrochlo-  ) 

General  impurity  

Quantitative  Analysis. 

( 

Fixed  oil  j 

Permanent  greasy  stain  on 

Olea  Distillata            -< 

paper. 

Alcohol                        •< 

Loss  in  volume  on  shaking 

Opium  .  . 

Deficient  in  Morphia 

with  water. 
Quantitative  Analysis 

General  

Quantitative  Analysis 

Plumbi  Carbonas  -j 

Potassa  Caustica  • 
Potassa  Sulphurata.  . 

PbS04,    BaSO4,    or) 
Silicates  J 

Calcium  (chalk).  .  .  .  j 

More  than  j  Chlorine, 
traces  of     (  Sulphate. 
Gen.  imp.,  H2O,  etc.  . 
Excess  of  Carbonate  [ 
or  Sulphate  .          ( 

Insoluble  in  Acetic  Acid. 

Ammonia  Oxalate,  after  re- 
moving the  Pb. 
AgNO3  to  Acid  solution. 
BaCl2  to  Acid  solution. 
Quantitative  Analysis. 
More  than  25%    insoluble 
in  Spirit 

Fe  etc  

Ammonium  Sulphydrate. 

Kro                     J 

Effervesces  with  Acids.    In- 

Potassas  Bicarbonas  .  .  . 

^^s  1 

sol.  in  Spirit.  Alkalinates, 
Quantitative  Analysis. 

Potass93  Carbonas.  .  .  - 

More     (  Silicates.  .  . 
than     -j  Sulphate  .  . 
traces  of  (  Chloride.  .  . 
General  

Insol.  in  Acids  after  evap. 
Bad  3  to  Acid  solution. 
AgN03  to  Acid  solution. 
Quantitative  Analysis. 

KC1  

AgNO3. 

Potassae  Cliloras  

CaClo  

Ammonia  Oxalate. 

PotasssB  Citras      .  .      . 

General           

Quantitative  Analysis. 

( 

K9S04  

Bad,. 

Potassa?  Nitras  ,  « 

Kf1! 

i 
Potassas  Permanganas. 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

KHSO4       

Test  Paper. 

Potass33  Sulphas  ....•] 

CaSO4     

Ammonia  Oxalate. 

Potassae  Tartras  j. 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Potassaa  Tart.  Acida.  J 
j 

Free  Bromine 

Odor. 

Potassii  Bromidum  .  .  ~\ 

KI    ,  

Chlorine  Water  and  StarcK 

General  .    

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Potassi  Ferridcyanide. 
( 

Ferrocyanide  of  K.  .  . 

Ferric  Salt. 
H,O.T  and  Starch. 

Potassii  lodiduni         •< 

KC1     

AgNO3,  etc. 

' 

KpCOo.. 

Sacc.  solution  of  Lime. 

( 

Salicin      

H,S04. 

Quiniaa  Sulphas  i 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Rhei  Radix.. 

Turmeric  

Boracic  Acid. 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


191 


NAME  OF  PREPARATION. 

IMPURITIES. 

TEST. 

'I 

Mineral  Matter  

Incineration. 

Earthy,  Soap,  etc  
Oil  

Insoluble  in  Spirits. 
Oil  stain,  Paper. 

K  compounds  • 

Deliquescence  of  Ash 

SapoMollis  \ 

Earthy,  Soap,  etc  

Oil 

Insoluble  in  Spirits. 

( 
Scammonise  Resina.  . 

Resin  of  Guaiacum..  . 
Resin  of  Jalap  
CaCo.,,  MgC03  

Inner  surf,  of  potato  paring. 
Insoluble  in  Ether. 
Effervesces  with  Acids. 

Sinapis  

Starch  (flour)  
Starch  (flour) 

Solution  of  Iodine. 
Solution  of  Iodine 

Soda  Caustica  ....      •< 

More  than  (  Chloride  . 
traces  of   ")  Sulphate 

AgN03  to  Acid  solutions.. 

Soda  Tartarata  

Gen.  imp.,  Water,  &c. 
General  

Quantitative  Analysis. 
Quantitative  Analysis 

Sodae  Acetas  •! 

Acid  or  Alkaline  imp. 
Na0S04orCaS04.... 
NaCl  or  CaCl8  

Test  Paper. 
Bad  3  to  Acid  solution. 
AgNO    to  Acid  solution 

Sodse  Arsenias  •< 

Excess    of    H2O   of) 
crystallization.  .  .  .  f 
General  .... 

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Na2C03  

Mercuric  Chloride 

Sodse  Hyposulphic  .... 

More  than  j  Chlorides 
traces  of  }  Sulphates 
General  

AgN03  to  Acid  solution.. 
BaCl2  to  Acid  solution. 
Quantitative  Analysis 

NaCl  

AgN03 

Sodse  Nitras  -J 

Na^S04  .  . 

BaCl    or  BaSNO 

f 

More  than  traces  of  ) 
Sulphates  ) 

BaCl2  to  Acid  solution. 

Sodse  Phosphas  4 
Sodse  Sulphas        .  .    •< 

Del  of  H2O  of  crys-  / 
tallization  or  excess  J 

Ammonium  Salts.  .  .  ) 
Ferric  Salts  .  j" 

Quantitative  Analysis. 
Solution  KHO  heated. 

General  

Quantitative  Analysis. 

Sodae  Valerianas  

NaO  or  Na2CO3  j 

Test  Paper. 

Insoluble  in  Spirits. 
Sp  Gr 

Spiritus  JStheris  Ni% 
trosi.  ...         " 

More  than  trace  of  Acid 
Free  Acid  

j  Effervesces  with  Bicarbon- 
(     ate  of  Soda. 
j  More  than  feeble  efferves. 

Deficiency  of  Nitrite  of 
Ethyl  

(     with  Bicarb,  of  Soda. 
[  Quantitative  Analysis. 

Spiritus       Ammonio  "| 
Aromat        1 

Specific  Gravity. 

Spiritus       Chlorofor-  f 
mii                         .  j 

Spiritus  Tenuior  

Gen.  (excess  of  H2O). 
Brucia  

Specific  Gravity. 
Nitric  Acid. 

Mineral  Matter  
Gen.  (excess  of  H2).  .  . 
Resin  or  Oil  

Incineration. 
Specific  Gravity. 
Opalescence  on  dilution* 

Spiritus  Rectificatus.  •< 

More  than   trace   of) 
Fusel  Oil,., 

AgN03. 

192 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NAME  OP  PBEPAKATION. 

IMPUBITIES. 

TEST. 

Sulphur  Precipitatum. 

CaS04   . 

j  Appear,  under  microscope 

f 

Earthy  Matter  

(     —  residue  on  ignition. 
Incineration. 

Sulphur  Sublimatum  •< 
Sulphuris  lodidum  

H2S04orH2S03.... 
Sulphide  of  Arsenicum 
Deficiency  of  Iodine... 
Deficiency  of  Sugar 

Litmus-paper. 
Ammonia. 
Quantitative  Analysis. 
Specific  Gravity 

Tamarindus  

Traces  of  Cu  .... 

Iron 

Veratria  

Incineration. 

Sulphates                    . 

Bad  g  or  BaSNO 

Chlorides          

Ae;NO, 

As  Cd  Cu,  Pb  

H2S 

Acetate  of  Iron  

HNO3+NH4HO 

NH4HO 

Chlorides 

A°*NOq  to  Acid  solution 

Zinci  Carbonas    .  .  .  .  • 

Sul  phates       .             . 

BaClo  to  Acid  solution 

Copper  Carbonate  
As  Cd  Cu  Pb  

NH4HO  to  Acid  solution. 
H2S 

BaCl2  or  Ba2N03. 

CaCL  

Ammonium  Oxalate. 

Zinci  Chloridum  

Fed  2 

Ferridcyanide  of  K 

Fe2Clfi  

Ferrocyanide  of  K 

ZnCO,  

Effervesces  with  Acids. 

Na3S04  or  ZnS04  .  .  . 
Chlorides,  

BaCl2  to  Acid  solution. 
AgNO,,  to  Acid  solution. 

Copper  Oxide 

NH4HO  to  Acid  solution 

As,  Cd,  Cu,  Pb,  

H2S. 

Zinci  Sulphas  • 

Iron  Sulphate  

Tincture  of  Galls 

Copper  Sulphate 

CuS04  add  NH  HO 

ZnSO4 

BaCl3  or  BaSNO 

Zinci  Valerianas  

Butyrate  of  Zinc  

Acetate  of  Cu  etc 

THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  193 


INFLUENCE    OF   FIXED   ORGANIC    SUBSTANCES   ON    THE 

PRECIPITATON    OF    METALLIC    OXIDES    FROM 

SALINE   SOLUTIONS    BY  ALKALIES. 

The  following  results  have  been  obtained  by  H.  Grothe 
(J.  pr.  Chem.,  xcii.  175) :  1.  The  alteration  produced  in  the 
reactions  of  different  metallic  solutions  with  alkalies  by  the 
presence  of  fixed  organic  bodies,  exhibit  great  diversities, 
scarcely  any  two  metallic  bodies  being  similarly  affected ;  so 
that  these  alterations  do  not  afford  properties  characteristic 
of  groups  of  metallic  oxides,  but  rather  of  individual  oxides. 
2.  Of  non-volatile  organic  substances,  citric  acid  acts  most 
strongly  in  modifying  these  reactions  ;  then  follows  tartaric 
acid ;  then  sugar,  starch,  and  gum,  which,  however,  act  but 
feebly,  and  require  to  be  added  in  large  excess.  3.  The  pre- 
cipitating action  of  ammonic  hydrate  is  diminished  by  these 
bodies  much  more  than  that  of  sodic  carbonate.  4.  Solutions 
which  are  not  precipitated  in  presence  of  fixed  organic  bodies 
by  alkaline  hydrates  or  carbonates,  are  for  the  most  part  pre- 
cipitated by  alkaline  orthophosphates,  pyrophosphates,  arse- 
nates,  and  borates.  5.  Sodic  orthophosphate  may  be  used  as 
a  reagent  in  nearly  all  the  cases  in  which  the  precipitation  of 
a  metallic  oxide  is  hindered  by  the  presence  of  non-volatile 
organic  substances. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  reactions  of  the  more  im- 
portant metallic  salts  with  ammonic  hydrate,  and  with  sodic 
carbonate,  borate,  phosphate,  pyrophosphate,  arsenate,  and 
borate,  in  presence  of  tartaric  acid,  citric  acid,  and  sugar: 
p  denotes  perfect  precipitation ;  *,  imperfect  precipitation ;  a 
dash,  no  precipitation : 

13 


194 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


Ammonic 
Hydrate. 

1 

5« 
•i" 

Sodic  Ortho- 
phosphate. 

Sodic  Pyro- 
phosphate. 

i 

<2 

.sS 

(U 

1 
o 

Ta.taric  Acid  

Aluminium  Salts.  . 

Citric  Acid  

' 

• 

P- 

P- 

Sugar 

Tartaric  Acid  

'• 

P- 
j 

P« 

p« 

Ma.nffa.nous  Salts  .  . 

Citric  Acid  

? 

P- 

P- 

Su0*ar 

• 

' 

• 

P- 

• 

Manganic  Salts 

Tartaric  Acid  
Citric  Acid     

• 

• 
p. 

P- 

P- 

P- 

P- 
P- 

P- 

I 

Sucrar.  

'• 

\ 

• 

P- 

F- 

i 

\ 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Zinc  Salts 

Citric  Acid 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Sugar  

• 

• 

P- 

P' 

Tartaric  Acid  

• 

• 

• 

; 

£ 

f 

Nickel  Salts      .... 

Citric  Acid  

] 

i 

Sugar  

i 

j 

i 

i 

Tartaric  Acid  

1 

j 

] 

i 

i 

Cobaltous  Salts  . 

Citric  Acid  

i 

1 

1 

Sugar  

Tartaric  Acid 

• 

• 

• 

Uranic  Salts         — 

Citric  Acid 

Sugar  .  . 

Ferrous  Salts  

Tartaric  Acid  

i. 

p- 

P- 

p- 

p- 

Suo"ar                  . 

Tartaric  Acid. 

• 

• 

• 

• 

. 

Ferric  Salts 

Citric  Acid  

• 

• 

• 

p* 

Su°"ar  

T). 

i 

• 

r) 

• 

Cupric  Salts         .    . 

Citric  Acid 

Suo*ar.  .  . 

j 

-i) 

Tartaric  Acid  

• 

j 

['• 

• 

• 

F- 

T) 

Cadmium  Salts  .... 

Citric  Acid  

i 

p. 

• 

• 

1* 

T) 

Tartaric  Acid 

i 

T) 

Lead  Salts  

Citric  Acid 

i 

- 

• 

• 

F« 

Suo-ar 

i 

• 

• 

Tartaric  Acid  

Bismuth  Salts  

Citric  Acid  

P. 

Suo*ar  

p. 

Tartaric  Acid. 

i 

i 

Chromic  Salts.    .  .  . 

Citric  Acid  



__ 



(Green  solution.) 

Sugar  

i. 

(  Tartaric  Acid 

Chromic  Salts  

!  Citric  Acid  

(violet  solution.) 

f  Sugar.  .  . 

p. 

i). 

D. 

D. 

D. 

p. 

196 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


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CD  CD    CD 

1=1  fl    fl 

'C  2  '3  'C 

,0  .S  S  o 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


197 


S02,  soda  ; 
rotten  horsedis 
white,  volatile  ri 
incandescence  ; 
garlic  smell  ;  op 
spar,  siskin-green 
teel  needle  No.  9,  b 
effervescence. 
3  skeleton,  heated 


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flame. 
me. 


p 
in 


po 
te  ;  p 
te  ;  y 
green 
fla 
fl 
of 
lly 


b 
p 


ammonia  va 
no  precipitat 
,  no  precipitat 
ble  salts  ;  pale- 
ble  salts  ;  crims 
ble  alts  ;  pale-red 
f  a.  SJ>,  salt 
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obalt 
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198 


TABLE    OF    VOLATILE    ELEMENTS 

FROM      ^ATATT'S      DICT. 


METALLIC  FILM. 

OXIDE-FILM. 

OXIDE-FILM 

WITH 

STANNOUS 
CHLORIDE. 

OXIDE  -FILM 

WITH 

STANNOUS 
CHLORIDE 
AND  SODA. 

OXIDE-FILM 

WITH 

ARGENTIC 
NITRATE  AND 
AMMONIA. 

Te. 

Black; 
thin  part  brown. 

White. 

Black. 

Black. 

Yellowish, 
white. 

Se. 

Cherry  red  ; 
thin  part  brick  red. 

White. 

Brick-red. 

Black. 

White. 

Sb. 

Black  ; 
thin  part  brown. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

Black  ; 
insoluble  in 
Ammonia. 

As. 

Black  ; 
thin  part  brown. 

White. 

White, 

White. 

Lemon-yellow  or 
reddish-brown; 
soluble  in 
Ammonia. 

Bi. 

Black  ; 
thin  part  brown. 

Yellowish- 
white. 

White. 

Black. 

White. 

Hg. 

Gray; 
non-coherent  thin 
film. 

Fe. 

Black; 
thin  part  brown. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

Pb. 

Black  ; 
thin  part  brown. 

Yellow-ochre 
color. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

Cd. 

Black  ; 
thin  part  brown. 

Blackish- 
brown  ;  thin 
part  white. 

White. 

White. 

White  ;  in  the 
thin  part  turns 
bluish-black. 

Zn. 

Black  ; 
thin  part  brown. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

Sn. 

Black  ; 
thin  part  brown. 

Yellowish- 
white. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

199 


WHICH    CAN    BE    REDUCED   AS   FILMS. 

OF     CHEMISTRY. 


IODIDE-FILM. 

IODIDE-FILM 

WITH 

AMMONIA. 

SULPHIDE-FILM. 

SULPHIDE  -FILM 
WITH  AMMONIC 
SULPHIDE. 

REMARKS. 

Brown  : 
disappears  for  a  time 
on  breathing. 

Disappears 
altogether  on 
blowing. 

Black  to 
blackish-brown. 

Disappears 
for  a  time. 

Elements 
whose  reduc- 
tion-films 
are  scarcely 
dissolved  in 
dilute 
Nitric  Acid. 

Brown  ; 
does  not  wholly  dis- 
appear on  breathing. 

Does  not 
disappear  on 
blowing. 

Yellow  to 
orange. 

Orange  and 
then  disappears 
for  a  time. 

Orange-red  to  yellow  ; 
disappears 
on  breathing. 

Disappears 
altogether  on 
blowing. 

Orange. 

Disappears 
for  a  time. 

Orange-yellow  ; 
disappears  for  a  time 
on  breathing. 

Disappears 
altogether  on 
blowing. 

Lemon 
colored. 

Does  not 
disappear. 

Bluish  -brown  ; 
thin  parts  pink  ; 
disappears  for  a  time 
on  breathing. 

Pink  to  orange  ; 
chestnut 
colored  when 
blowing. 

Burnt  umber 
color  to 
coffee  color. 

Does  not 
disappear. 

1 

Elements 
whose  reduc- 
tion-films 
!       are  with 
'      difficulty 
dissolved  in 
dilute 
Nitric  Acid. 

Carmine-colored  and 
lemon  -yellow  ; 
does  not.  disappear  on 
breathing. 

Disappears 
for  a  time  on 
blowing. 

Black. 

Does  not 
disappear. 

Lemon-yellow  ; 
does  not  disappear  on 
breathing. 

Does  not 
disappear  on 
blowing. 

Black  ; 

thin  parts 
bluish  -gray. 

Does  not 
disappear. 

Orange-yellow  to 
lemon  color  ; 
does  not  disappear  on 
breathing. 

Disappears 
for  a  time  on 
blowing. 

Brownish-red 
to  black. 

Does  not 
disappear. 

Elements 
whose  reduc- 
tion-films 
are  instantly 
dissolved  in 
dilute 
Nitric  Acid. 

White. 

WThite. 

Lemon 
colored. 

Does  not 
disappear. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

Does  not 
disappear. 

Yellowish-white. 

Yellowish- 
white. 

White. 

Does  not 
disappear. 

200  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

SCHEME*    FOR   THE    QUALITATIVE    DETERMINATION    OF 
SUBSTANCES    BY   THE    BLOWPIPE, 

The  substance  may  contain  As,  Sb,  S,  Se,  Fe,  Mn,  Cu,  Ni, 
Pb,  Bi,  Ag,  Au,  Hg,  Zn,  Cd,  Sn,  Cl,  Br,  I,  C02,  Si02,  HN03, 
H20,  etc.  v 

1.  Treat  on  Ch  (charcoal)  in  the  O.F.  (oxidizing  flame)  to 
find  volatile  substances  such  as,  As,  Sb,  S,  Se,  Pb,  Bi,  Ag,  Zn, 
Cd,  etc.  (p.  66,  et  seq.)     [This  number,  and  all  others,  refer  to 
the  pages  of  Plattner's  Manual,  translated  by  II.  B.  Cornwall, 
1872.     Owing  to  the  additions  to  this  scheme,  as  also  Casa- 
major's  table  on  the  preceding  page,  reference  to  Plattner's 
Manual  will  be  unnecessary.] 

a.  If  there  are  volatile  substances  present,  form  a  coating  and  test  it 
with  S.Ph  (salt  of  phosphorus)  and  tin  on  Ch  for  Sb  (p.  99),  or  to  distin- 
guish between  Pb  and  Bi  (p.  280). 

b.  If  there  are   no  volatile  substances  present,  divide  a  part  of  the 
substance  into  three  portions  and  proceed  as  in  A. 

a.  Yellow  coat,  yielding  with  S.  Ph  a  black  bead  ;  disappearing  with 
blue  flame,  no  part  of  it  yielding  green  Sb  flame  ;  Pb  and  Bi. 

&.  Yellow  coat,  generally  with  white  border,  yielding  black  or  gray  bead 
with  S.  Ph,  disappearing  with  blue  flame  ;  also  the  border  disappearing 
with  green  flame  ;  Pb  and  Sb. 

c.  Yellow  coat,  very  similar  to  6,  but  yielding  no  blue  flame  ;  Bi  and  Sb. 
(See  note  at  end  of  Scheme.) 

2.  If  As,    Sb,   S,    Se   are  present,  roast   a  large  quantity 
thoroughly  on  Ch  (p.  77).     Divide  the  substance  into  three 
portions  and  proceed  as  in  A. 

A.  TREATMENT  OF  THE  FIRST  PORTION. — Dissolve  a  very 
small  quantity  in  borax  on  platinum- wire  in  the  0.  F.  and 
observe  the  color  produced.  Yarious  colors  will  be  formed 
by  the  combination  of  the  oxides.  Saturate  the  bead  and 
shake  it  oif  into  a  porcelain  dish ;  repeat  this  once  or  twice 
(p.  79). 

a.  Treat  these  beads  on  Ch  with  a  small  piece  of  lead,  silver  or  gold  in 
a  strong  R.  F.  (reducing  flame),  p.  113. 

*  Scheme  is  by  T.  Egleston,  E.  M.,  with  a  few  additions  by  Author. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  201 

b.  Fe,  Mn,  Co,  etc.,  remain  in  the  bead  (p.  115). 

If  the  bead  spreads  out  on  the  Ch,  it  must  be  collected  to  a  globule  by 
continued  blowing. 

Make  a  borax-bead  on  platinum- wire  and  dissolve  in  it  some  of  the 
fragments  of  the  bead,  reserving  the  rest  for  accident. 

c.  Ni,  Cu,  Ag,  Au,  Sn,  Pb,  Bi  are  reduced,  and  collect  by  the  lead-button 
(p.  115). 

Remove  the  lead-button  from  the  bead  while  hot,  or  by  breaking  the 
latter,  when  cold,  on  an  anvil  between  paper,  carefully  preserving  all 
the  fragments. 

d.  If  Co  is  present  the  bead  will  be  blue. 

If  a  large  amount  of  Fe  is  present,  add  a  little  borax  to  prove  the  presence 
or  absence  of  Co  (p.  222). 

If  Mn  is  present,  the  bead,  when  treated  on  platinum- wire  in  the  O.F., 
will  become  dark- violet  or  black. 

e.  If  no  Co  is  present,  the  bead  will  be  almost  colorless. 

Look  here  for  Cr,  Ti,  Mo,  U,  W,  V,  Ta.  Mo  will  give  a  cloudy-brown  or 
black  with  the  borax-bead  in  the  R.  F.,  owing  to  the  molybdic  acid  being 
reduced. 

/.  Treat  the  button  c  on  Ch  in  the  0.  F.  until  all  the  lead,  etc.,  is  driven 
off,  Ni,  Cu,  Ag,  Au  remaining  behind;  or  separate  the  lead  with  boracic 
acid  (p.  442). 

g.  Treat  the  residue  g  on  Ch  in  O.F.  with  S.Ph  bead,  removing  the  but- 
ton while  the  bead  is  hot. 

h.  If  Ni  and  Cu  are  present,  the  bead  will  be  green  when  cold  (p.  292). 
If  Ni  only,  yellow.  If  Cu  only,  blue. 

Prove  Cu  by  treating  with  tin  on  Ch  in  R.F.  (p.  293). 

t.  For  Ag  and  Au,  make  the  special  test  No.  8. 

B.  TREATMENT  OF  THE   SECOND  PORTION. — Drive   off  the 
volatile  substances  in  the  O.F.  on  Ch.     Treat  with  the  R.F,  or 
mix  with  soda,  and  then  treat  with  R.F.  for  Zn,  Cd,  Sn.     If  a 
white  coating  is  formed,  test  with  cobalt  solution  (pp.  251,  256, 
276).     Tin  gives  greenish-blue ;  zinc,  green.     If  Zn  is  found, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  look  for  Sn  and  vice  versa,  as  they  very 
rarely  occur  together.     Cd  gives  a  brown  coat  and  variegated 
tarnish. 

C.  TREATMENT  OF  THE  THIRD  PORTION. — Dissolve  some  of 
the  substance   in  S.Ph  on   platinum-wire  in  O.F.,  observing 
whether  Si  is  present  or  not,  and  test  for  Mn  with  nitrate  of 
potassa  and  soda  (p.  210). 

3.  Test  for  As  with  soda  on  Ch  in  the  R.F.,  or  with  dry  soda 


202  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

in  a  closed  tube  (p.  345  et  seq.).     On  charcoal  it  gives  garlic 
odor ;  in  the  tube,  a  metallic  mirror. 

4.  Dissolves  in  S.Ph  on  platinum- wire  in  the  O.F.  (if  the  sub- 
stance is  not  metallic  and  does  not  contain  any  S),  and  test 
for  Sb  on  Ch  with  tin  in  the  R.F.     (See  1,  a,  p.  99.) 

5.  Test  for  Se  on  Ch  ;  it  gives  a  horse-radish  odor  (p.  368). 

6.  In  absence  of  Se,  fuse  with  soda  in  the  R.F.,  and  test  for 
S  on  silver-foil  (p.  365).     By  moistening  the  fused  mass,  and 
letting  it  stand  on  the  foil,  the  latter  turns  black  if  S  be  pres- 
ent.    In  the  presence  of  Se,  test  in  open  tube  (p.  366). 

7.  Test  for  Hg  with  dry  soda  in  a  closed  tube;  a  metallic 
mirror  is  formed  (p.  304). 

8.  Mix  some  of  the  substance  with  assay  lead  and  borax 
glass,  and  fuse  on  Ch  in  the  R.F.  (p.  401).     Cupel  the  lead- 
button  for  Ag  (p.  407).     Test  with  nitric  acid  for  Au,  dissolv- 
ing the  silver  (p.  320). 

9.  Test  for  Cl  and  I  with  a  bead  of  S.Ph  saturated  with 
oxide  of  copper.     Cl  gives  blue  flame;  I,  intense  green  (pp. 
373,  374,  375). 

1C.  Test  for  Br  with  bisulphate  of  potassa  in  a  matrass, 
gives  brownish-yellow  fumes  ;  test  also  for  Cl  (p.  374). 

11.  Test  for  H20  in  a  closed  tube ;  drops  collect  on  the  in- 
terior (p.  353). 

12.  Test  for  borates :  dip  substance  in  glycerine  and  hold 
in  flame — green  color.     If  barium  is  present,  remove  the  same, 
then  apply  the  test.     Discovered  by  Mr.  lies.     (See  Amer. 
Chem.,  Apr.  1876.) 

13.  Test  on  platinum-wire,  or  in  platinum-pointed  forceps, 
for  coloration  of  the  flame  (p.  72  et  seq.). 

14.  Test  for  C02  with  hydrochloric  acid,  letting  the  gas 
pass  over  lime-water  (p.  360). 

15.  Test  for  HN03  with  bisulphate  of  potassa  in  a  matrass; 
yellow-colored  fumes  and  acid  reaction  (p.  354). 

16.  Test  for  Te  in  an  open  tube;  forms  a  grayish-white 
sublimate,  which  fuses  to  clear  transparent  drops  when  strongly 
heated.     Te  burns  with  a  bluish-green  flame  (p.  354). 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  203 

DETECTION    OF    BISMUTH    IN   THE    PRESENCE   OF   LEAD 
AND  ANTIMONY. 

By    H.    B.    CORNWALL,    E.  M. 

One  part  teroxide  of  bismuth,  fifty  parts  oxide  of  lead, 
and  fifty  parts  teroxide  of  antimony  are  mixed  with  an 
equal  volume  of  sulphur,  and  treated  B.B.  in  a  deep  cavity  on 
coal  with  the  blue  flame  for  a  few  minutes.  The  resulting 
fused  sulphides  remove  to  a  flat  coal,  and  treat  alternately 
with  O.F.  and  R.F.  until  the  antimonial  fumes  cease  to  come 
off,  and  an  impure  blue  lead  flame  appears.  Powder  the 
residue  and  treat  a  portion  of  it  with  iodine  mixed  on  coal. 
No  bismuth  will  be  detected.  But  if  the  other  portion  is 
treated  in  an  open  tube  (4  in.  long  and  not  less  than  J  in. 
wide,  over  a  Bunsen  gas-burner)  with  a  mixture  of  5  parts 
sulphur  and  1  part  iodide  of  potassium  by  weight ;  and  about 
equal  volumes  of  this  and  of  the  metallic  oxide,  a  distinct  bis- 
muth sublimate  will  be  formed  about  one- third  of  an  inch 
above  the  lower  edge  of  the  yellow  sublimate. 

The  bismuth  sublimate  forms  a  red  ring.  If  sulphides  are 
under  treatment,  remove  the  excess  of  antimony  on  coal. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  with  the  bismuth  sub- 
limate a  sublimate  of  iodine,  which  may  condense  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  tube,  but  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  assay. 


DETERMINATION    OF    SPECIFIC   GRAVITIES. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITIES   OF   POWDERS  OR   SMALL   SOLIDS. 
(Brand  and  Taylor's  Chemistry.) 

The  specific  gravity  of  solids  in  powder  or  in  small  pieces 
may  conveniently  be  determined  by  the  bottle.  Thus :  weigh 
the  powder,  pour  it  into  the  bottle,  and  fill  it  with  water  at 
62°  F.,  taking  care  to  dislodge  all  adhering  bubbles  of  air. 
Then  weigh  it  and  deduct  the  known  weight  of  the  bottle; 
the  remainder  is  the  conjoint  weight  of  the  powder  and  water. 
Deduct  from  this  last  sum  the  found  weight  of  the  powder, 
and  the  difference  is  the  weight  of  the  water ;  deduct  this  dif- 
ference from  the  known  weight  of  the  water  required  to  fill 
the  bottle,  and  the  remainder  is  the  weight  of  a  volume  of 
water  equal  to  the  volume  of  the  solid  in  powder ;  then  as  this 
is  to  the  known  weight  of  water,  required  to  fill  the  bottle 
:  :  Sp.  Gr.  water  :  Sp.  Gr.  powder.  Example : 

Grains. 

Weight  of  water  iii  the  bottle 1000 

"       of  native  platinum  grains  (in  air) 40 

1040 
Weight  of  water  and  platinum  in  bottle 1037.5 

Difference  =  Volume  of  water  displaced 2.5 

40  -*-  2.5  =  16  Sp.  Gr.  of  native  platinum. 

When  the  substance  is  soluble  in  water,  another  liquid  of 
known  specific  gravity  which  does  not  act  upon  the  solid, 
must  be  employed.  Alcohol,  oil  of  turpentine,  or  olive  oil 
may  be  used,  or,  in  some  cases,  the  substance  may  be  coated 
with  varnish.  Example — Required  Sp.  Gr.  of  Sugar : 

Grains. 

Weight  of  sugar  in  air 400 

"      "      in  oil  of  turpentine 182.5 

Weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  oil 217.5 

Known  Sp.  Gr.  of  turpentine 0.870 

Then  0.870  :  1000  :  :  217.5  :  250,  and  400  -r-  250  =  1.6, 
which  is  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  the  sugar. 


208  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY  OF   SOLIDS   HEAVIER  THAN  WATER. 
(Brand  and  Taylor's  Chemistry.) 

Weigh  the  solid  in  air,  then  suspend  it  by  a  fine  thread 
(horse-hair)  to  one  arm  of  a  balance ;  exactly  counterpoise  it, 
and  immerse  the  solid  so  counterpoised  in  distilled  water  at 
62°  F.,  and  note  how  much  less  it  weighs  now  than  when 
weighed  in  air.  The  difference  between  the  two  is  the  weight 
of  a  volume  of  water,  exactly  equal  to  that  of  the  immersed 
solid.  Divide  the  weight  of  the  solid  in  air  by  this  differ- 
ence, and  the  result  is  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  the  solid.  Thus  in  refer- 
ence to  a  small  bar  of  aluminum : 

Grains. 

Weight  of  Aluminum  in  air 46.3 

"       of          "  in  water 29.0 

Difference  =Volume  of  water 17.3 

46.3  -f-  17.3  =  2.6  Sp.  Gr.  of  Aluminum. 

A  knowledge  of  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  solids  enables  a  chemist  to 
ascertain  the  weight  of  bodies  from  their  volume.  A  cubic  foot 
of  water  contains  1728  cubic  inches,  arid  weighs  1000  ounces 
(strictly  998  ounces  62.4  pounds  Av.)  ;  hence  a  cubic  foot  of 
sulphur  (Sp.  Gr.  1.957)  would  weigh  1957  ounces,  and  a  cubic 
foot  of  marble  (Sp.  Gr.  2.5)  would  weigh  2500  ounces.  A 
cubic  foot  of  air  weighs  535.161  grains. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY   OF   SOLIDS    LIGHTER  THAN   WATER. 
(Brand  and  Taylor's  Chemistry?) 

1.  Find  the  weight  of  the  solid  (a)  in  air.  2.  Take  a  piece 
of  metal  heavy  enough  to  make  (a)  sink  in  water,  and  find  its 
weight  in  air  and  in  water.  3.  Tie  together  (a)  and  the  metal, 
and  find  the  weight  of  the  compound  mass  in  water.  The 
difference  between  the  weight  of  the  metal  in  air  and  in  water 
is  the  weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  that  of  the  metal ; 
deduct  this  from  the  difference  between  the  weights  in  air  and 
in  water  of  the  compound  mass,  and  the  remainder  is  the 
weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  (a).  JSTow  divide  the 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  209 

weight  of  (a)  by  the  remainder,  and  obtain  the  Sp.  Gr.     Thus 
with  reference  to  beef-fat : 

Grains. 

Weight  of  fat  in  air 117.3 

Add  brass  weight  to  sink  it 1000.0 


Weight  of  compound  mass  in  air 1117.3 

Grains. 

Loss  of  weight  by  the  compound  mass  in  water. . , 245.5 

"    "  brass  weight  (1000)  in  water 119.4 

Weight  of  the  water  displaced  by  the  fat 126.1 

Hence  117.3  -r- 126.1  =  0.930  Sp.  Gr.  of  beef-fat. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY   OF  GASES. 

The  weighing  of  the  air  and  gas  should  take  place  at  the 
same  temperature  and  pressure,  or  a  calculation  should  be 
made.  In  reference  to  gases  and  vapors,  air  is  taken  as  the 
standard  of  unity. 

Gases. — A  light  glass  flask,  of  about  forty  or  fifty  cubic 
inches  capacity  is  employed.  This  is  capable  of  being  screwed 
to  the  air-pump  plate,  and  of  being  suspended  to  a  scale-beam 
and  accurately  balanced.  The  flask  is  exhausted,  balanced, 
filled  with  dry  air,  and  again  balanced.  The  increase  in  weight 
represents  the  weight  of  the  volume  of  dry  air  in  the  flask,  at 
the  pressure  and  temperature  at  which  it  was  filled.  The  ex- 
periment is  repeated  with  the  dry  gas,  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  which  it 
is  proposed  to  determine.  The  following  is  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  car- 
bonic oxide  (C02) : 

Grains. 

Weight  of  the  flask  with  dry  air 2033.8 

"     exhausted 2021.4 

Weight  of  dry  air  in  flask 12,4 

Grains. 

Weight  of  the  flask  with  dry  carbonic  oxide 2040.24 

"     exhausted 2021.40 

Weight  of  dry  carbonic  oxide  in  flask 18.84 

Hence,  18.84  -=-  12.4  —  1.520  Sp.  Gr.  of  carbonic  oxide. 

The  weight  of  100  cubic  inches  of  any  gas  may  be  found  by 
multiplying  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  or  vapor  by  31  [one 


210  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

hundred  cubic  inches  of  dry  air  at  a  mean  temperature  of 
(62°  F.),  and  a  mean  pressure  (30  inches),  are  considered  to  weigh 
31  grains].  Thus,  nitrogen  has  a  Sp.  Gr.  of  0.967  and  0.967 
X  31  =  29.98  grains,  the  weight  of  a  hundred  cubic  inches  of 
the  gas. 

A  knowledge  of  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  gases  ena,bles  a  chemist  to 
control  the  results  of  an  analysis  of  a  compound  gas.  Thus,  if 
2  volumes  of  ammonia  consist  of  one  volume  of  nitrogen  and 
three  volumes  of  hydrogen,  it  follows  that  the  sum  of  the  spe- 
cific gravities  of  its  constituents,  divided  by  2,  should  exactly 
represent  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  the  gas. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY  OF  VAPORS. 
(Brand  and  Taylor's  Chemistry.} 

The  weights  of  equal  volumes  of  vapor  and  air  are  com- 
pared under  the  same  temperature  and  pressure.  A  thin  glass 
globe  of  about  three  inches  diameter  is  drawn  out  at  its  neck 
to  a  narrow  tube,  six  or  seven  inches  long,  the  point  of  the 
tube  being  cut  across  with  a  file,  but  not  sealed.  The  globe 
is  then  weighed,  and  the  temperature  and  pressure  at  the  time 
observed.  In  order  to  introduce  a  volatile  liquid,  the  globe  is 
warmed  so  as  to  expel  a  portion  of  its  air,  and  the  end  of  the 
tube  is  then  dipped  into  the  liquid.  As  the  globe  cools,  the 
air  within  contracts  and  the  liquid  is  forced  into  it  by  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  "When  a  sufficient  quantity  (from  100  to 
150  grains)  of  liquid  have  entered,  the  globe  is  finally  enclosed 
in  a  wire-holder,  and  immersed  in  a  bath  of  water,  oil,  or  other 
medium,  heated  to  50°  or  60°  above  the  boiling  point  of  the 
liquid  in  the  globe.  Under  these  circumstances,  a  stream  of 
vapor  rushes  rapidly  through  the  orifice,  carrying  with  it  the 
air  of  the  globe.  When  this  ceases  the  point  of  the  tube  is 
sealed  by  a  blowpipe  flame,  the  temperature  being  observed  at 
the  same  minute.  The  globe  is  removed  from  the  bath,  and 
when  cool  is  cleaned  and  weighed.  The  next  point  to  be 
determined  is  the  capacity  of  the  globe.  For  this  purpose  the 
neck  is  broken  under  the  surface  of  water  or  mercury,  when 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  211 

the  cold  fluid  enters  the  globe  and  fills  it  completely,  if  the 
operation  has  been  properly  conducted,  and  all  the  air  has 
been  expelled  by  the  vapor.  By  pouring  out  the  water  or 
mercury  into  a  graduated  vessel,  the  capacity  of  the  globe  is 
accurately  ascertained.  The  data  necessary  for  the  calculation 
is  thus  obtained : 

1.  The  weight  of  the  globe  full  of  air  at  the  common  tem- 
perature and  pressure. 

2.  The  weight  of  the  globe,  and  of  the  vapor  filling  it,  at 
the  temperature  of  the  bath,  and  under  the  same  pressure. 

3.  The  capacity  of  the  globe. 

Having  these  results,  there  can  be  obtained  by  calculation  : 

4.  The  weight  of  the  empty  globe. 

5.  The  weight  of  the  vapor  filling  the  globe  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  bath,  as  well  as  its  volume  at  this  or  at  any  other 
temperature  that  may  be  required. 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  the  object  is  to  determine  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  vapor  of  chloroform. 

1.  The  weight  of  the  globe  full  of  air  at  60°  F.  and  bar.  30, 
is  found  to  be  2012.4  grains. 

2.  The  liquid  chloroform  having  been  introduced  into  the 
globe  in  the  manner  described,  the  globe  is  maintained  at  a 
temperature  of  200°  in  the  bath  until  nothing  but  vapor  re- 
mains in  the  interior.     The  aperture  of  the  small  tube  is  then 
sealed.     The  globe,  when  dry  and  cooled  to  60°  F.,  is  found  to 
weigh   2040  grains.     This  gives  the  weight  of  the  globe  and 
vapor  together. 

3.  The  capacity  of  the  globe  is  determined  by  breaking  the 
point  of  the  tube  under  water.     The  liquid  rushes  in  and 
entirely  fills  the  vessel.     When  this  liquid  is  poured  into  a 
graduated  glass,  it  is  found  that  at  60°  F.  there  are  40  cubic 
inches ;  hence,  40  cubic  inches  of  air  were  contained  in  the 
globe  at  common  temperature  and  pressure. 

4.  The  weight  of  this  air  would  be  12.4  grains  (100  cubic 
inches  :  31  grs.  : :  40  cubic  inches  :  12.4  grs.),  and  as  the  globe 
and  air  weighed  together  2012.4  grains,  then  2012.4  —  12.4  = 
2000  grains,  the  weight  of  the  empty  globe. 


212  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

5.  The  weight  of  the  vapor  filling  the  globe  may  now  be 
determined.  The  globe  was  found  to  weigh,  on  cooling,  2040 
grains ;  hence,  2040  —  2000  =  40  grains,  the  weight  of  the 
vapor.  It  is  now  necessary  to  determine  either  the  weight  .of 
the  air  which  would  fill  the  globe  at  the  temperature  of  the 
bath,  or  the  volume  of  vapor  which,  by  calculation,  would  be 
contained  in  the  globe  when  cooled  to  60°  F.  The  reduction  of 
the  volume  by  cooling  from  200°  F.  to  60°  F.  is  the  more  sim- 
ple process.  Thus  40  cubic  inches  at  60°  F.  (648  :  508  : :  40  : 
30.78).  According  to  Gay-Lussac,  1000  volumes  of  air  at 
32°  are  increased  to  1375  volumes  at  212°  F.  Hence,  the 
increase  is  -f  f~|  or  2.08,  for  each  degree  between  32°  F.  and 
212°  F. ;  and  1000-^2.08  =  480.  Hence,  the  increase  for 
each  degree  is  equal  to  l-480th  part  of  the  volume  at  32°  F. ; 
or,  assuming  that  the  volume  of  gas  at  this  temperature  is  480 
cubic  inches,  there  will  be  an  addition  of  one  cubic  inch  for 
every  degree  of  increase  of  temperature  up  to  212°  F. 

The  mean  temperature  is  taken  at  60°  F.,  and  480  cubic  inches 
at  this  temperature  would  become  (60  —  32  -f  480)  508  cubic 
inches.  The  number  32  is  deducted  from  the  temperatures, 
because  it  is  from  this  degree  (32°  F.)  that  the  rate  of  expan- 
sion, on  which  the  calculation  is  based,  commences.  Hence, 
assuming  that  chloroform  vapor  was  cooled  to  60°,  and  could 
still  exist  as  vapor  at  that  temperature,  it  is  obvious  that  its 
specific  gravity  would  be  determined  by  ascertaining  the 
weight  of  30.78  cubic  inches  of  air  at  the  same  temperature 
and  pressure.  100" cubic  inches  of  air  weigh  31  grains ;  hence, 
100  :  31  : :  3078  :  9.54.  Hence,  at  the  same  temperature,  60°, 
30.78  cubic  inches  of  chloroform  would  weigh  only  9.54  grains ; 
and  40  -f-  9.54  =  4.19,  which  is  nearly  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  vapor  of  chloroform,  as  determined  by  calculation  from  its 
elementary  composition.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the 
results: 

Capacity  of  the  globe  at  60°  =      40  cubic  inches. 

Weight  of  the  globe  with  dry  air        =:  2012.4  grains. 
"          "       air  by  calculation         =      12.4      t( 

Weight  of  the  globe  without  air         =  2000         " 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  213 

Weight  of  the  globe  with  chloroform  vapor  =  2040  grains. 
"          "       chloroform  vapor  =40        " 

40  cubic  inches  of  air  or  vapor  at  200°,  reduced  to  30.78  cubic  inches 
at  60°. 

Weight  of  30.78  cubic  inches  of  air  at  60°  =    9.54  grains. 

"  "  chloroform  vapor  at  60°    =  40 

Hence, 

Wt.  of  air.   Wt.  of  chlor.  vapor.       Sp.  Gr.  air.       Sp.  Gr.  chlor.  vapor. 
9.54         ;         40         ::         1.000         :         4.192. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  ascertained  Sp.  Gr.  of  chloro- 
form vapor  is  4.20 ;  and  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  the  vapor  calculated 
from  its  elementary  composition  is  4.1805 ;  differences  which 
are  comparatively  unimportant. 


SPECIFIC     GRAVITY 

Corresponding  to   Degrees  of   BAUME'S    HYDROMETER. 


14°  R.    17.5°  C.    (Sp.  Gr.  = 


144 


144 -B° 


correct.) 


DEGREE. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

DEGREE. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

DEGREE. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

.0 

1.0000 

24.5 

1.2050 

48.5 

1.5079 

0.5 

1.0035 

25.0 

1.2101 

49.0 

1.5158 

1.0 

1.0070 

25.5 

1.2152 

49.5 

1.5238 

1.5 

1.0105 

26.0 

1.2203 

500 

1.5319 

2.0 

1.0141 

26".5 

1.2255 

50.5 

1.5401 

2.5 

1.0177 

270 

1.2308 

51.0 

1.5484 

3.0 

1.0213 

27.5 

1.2361 

51.5 

1.5568 

3.5 

1.0249 

28.0 

1.2414 

52.0 

1.5652 

4.0 

1.0286 

28.5 

1.2468 

52.5 

1.5737 

4.5 

1.0323 

29.0 

1.2522 

53.0 

1.5824 

5.0 

1.0360 

29.5 

1.S576 

53.5 

1.5911 

5.5 

1.0397 

30.0 

1.2632 

54.0 

16000 

6.0 

1.0435 

30.5 

1.2687 

54.5 

1.6089 

6.5 

1.0473 

31.0 

1.2743 

55.0 

1.6179 

7.0 

1.0511 

31.5 

1.2800 

55.5 

1.6271 

7.5 

1.0549 

32.0 

1.2857 

56.0 

1.6363 

8.0 

1.0588 

32.5 

1.2915 

56.5 

1:6457 

8.5 

1.0827 

33.0 

1.2973 

57.0 

1.6551 

9.0 

1.0667 

33.5 

1.3032 

57.5 

1.6647 

9.5 

1.0703 

34.0 

1.3091 

58.0 

16744 

10.0 

1.0746 

34.5 

1.3151 

58.5 

1.6842 

10.5 

1.0787 

35.0 

1.3211 

59.0 

16941 

11.0 

1.0837 

35.5 

1.3272 

59.5 

1.7041 

11.5 

1.0868 

36.0 

1.3333 

60.0 

1.7142 

12.0 

1.0909 

36.5 

1.3395 

60.5 

1.7245 

12.5 

1.0951 

37.0 

1.3458 

61.0 

1.7349 

13.0 

1.0992 

37.5 

1.3521 

61.5 

1.7454 

135 

1.1034 

38.0 

1.3585 

62.0 

1.7560 

14.0 

1.1111 

-38.5 

1.3649 

62.5 

.7668 

14.5 

1.1120 

39.0 

1.3714 

63.0 

'.  .7777 

15.0 

1.1163 

39.5 

1.3780 

63.5 

.7888 

15.5 

1.1206 

40.0 

1.3846 

640 

.7999 

16.0 

1.1250 

40.5 

1.3913 

.  64.5 

.8112 

16.5 

1.1294 

41.0 

1.3981 

65.0 

1.8227 

17.0 

1.1339 

41.5 

1.4049 

65.5 

1.8343 

17.5 

1.1383 

42.0 

1.4118  ' 

66.0 

1.8461 

18.0 

1.1429 

42.5 

.4187 

66.5 

.  1.8580 

18.5 

1.1475 

43.0 

.4267 

67.0 

1.8701 

19.0 

1.1520 

43.5 

.4328 

67.5 

1.8828 

19.5 

1.1566 

44.0 

.4400 

68.0 

1.8947 

20.0 

1.1613 

44.5 

.4472 

68.5 

1.9071 

20.5 

1.1660 

45.0 

.4545 

69.0 

1.9200 

21.0 

1.1707 

45.5 

.4619 

69.5 

1.9328 

21.5 

1.1755 

46.0 

1.4694 

70.0 

1.9459 

22.0 

1.1803 

46.5 

1.4769 

70.5 

1.9591 

225 

1.1852 

47.0 

1.4845 

71.0 

1.9726 

23.0 

1.1901 

47.5 

1.4922 

71.5 

1.9862 

88.5 

1.1950 

48.0 

1.5000 

72.0 

2.0000 

24.0 

1.2000 

THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


215 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY 

FOR    LIQUIDS    LIGHTER    THAN    WATER. 

144 


144 

-  134  -  B°  '• 


—  =  Sp.  Gr. 


B°  +  134 
TABLE  BY  DR.   W.   H.   PILE. 


DEGREES 

OF 

HYDROM- 
ETER. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 
(Baume). 

DEGREES 

OF 

HYDROM- 
ETER. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 

(Baume). 

DEGREES 

OF 

HYDROM- 
ETER. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 
(Baume). 

DEGREES 

OF 

HYDROM- 
ETER. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 
(Baume). 

10 

1.0000 

27 

.8917 

44 

.8045 

61 

.7329 

11 

.9929 

28 

.8860 

45 

.8000 

62 

.7290 

12 

.9859 

29 

.8805 

46 

.7954 

63 

.7253 

13 

.9?90 

30 

.8750 

47 

.7909 

64 

.7216 

14 

.9722 

31 

.8695 

48 

.7865 

65 

.7179 

15 

.9655 

32 

.8641 

49 

.7821 

66 

.7142 

16 

.9589 

33 

.8588 

50 

.7777 

67 

.7106 

17 

.9523 

34 

.8533 

51 

.7734 

68 

.7070 

18 

.9459 

35 

.8484 

52 

.7692  > 

69 

.7035 

19 

.9395 

36 

.8433 

53 

.7650 

70 

.7000 

20 

.9333 

37 

.8383 

54 

.7608 

71 

.6965 

21 

.9271 

38 

.8333 

55 

.7567 

72 

.6930 

22 

.9210 

39 

.8284 

56 

.7526 

73 

.6896 

23 

.9150 

40 

.8235 

57 

.7486 

74 

.6863 

24 

.9090 

41 

.8187 

58 

.7446 

75 

.6829 

25 

.9032 

42 

.8139 

59 

.7407 

76 

.6796 

26 

.8974 

43 

.8092 

60 

.7368 

77 

.6763 

DEGREES    TWADDLE'S     HYDROMETER 

AND    THE    CORRESPONDING    SPECIFIC    GRAVITIES. 


DEGREES. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

DEGREES. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

DEGREES. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

DEGREES. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

1 

1.005 

8 

1.040 

15 

1.075 

22 

1.110 

2 

1.010 

9 

1.045 

16 

1.080 

23 

1.115 

3 

1.015 

10 

1.050 

17 

1.085 

24 

1.120 

4 

1.020 

11 

1.055 

18 

1.090 

25 

1.125 

5 

1.025 

12 

1.060 

19 

1.095 

26 

1.130 

6 

1.030 

13 

1.065 

20 

1.100 

27 

1.135 

7 

1.035 

14 

1.070 

21 

1.105 

28 

1.140 

216 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


PROPORTION  OF  ABSOLUTE  ALCOHOL 

BY    WEIGHT     IN     1OO     PARTS    OF    SPIRIT, 

OF  DIFFERENT   SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  AT  60°  F.  (15°.5  C.) 
(FOWNES.    Phil.  Trans.,  1847.) 


ALCOHOL 

PERCENT. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

ALCOHOL 

PERCENT. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

ALCOHOL 

PER  CENT. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

ALCOHOL 

PERCENT. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

0 

1.0000 

25 

.9652 

51 

.9160 

76 

.8581 

0 

.9991 

26 

.9638 

52 

.9135 

77 

.8557 

1 

.9981 

27 

.9623 

53 

.9113 

78 

.8533 

2 

.9965 

28 

.9609 

54 

.9090 

79 

.8508 

3 

.9947 

29 

.9593 

55 

.9069 

80 

.8483 

4 

.9930 

30 

.9578 

56 

.9047 

81 

.8459 

5 

.9914 

31 

.9560 

57 

.9025 

82 

.8434 

6 

.9898 

32 

.9544 

58 

.9001 

83 

.8408 

7 

.9884 

33 

.9528 

59 

.8979 

84 

.8382 

8 

.9869 

34 

.9511 

60 

.8956 

85 

.8357 

9 

.9855 

35 

.9490 

61 

.8932 

86 

.8331 

10 

.9841 

36 

.9470 

62 

.8908 

87 

.8305 

11 

.9828 

37 

.9452 

63 

.8886 

88 

.8279 

12 

.9815 

38 

.9434 

64 

.8863 

89 

.8254 

13 

.9802 

39 

.9416 

65 

.8840 

90 

.8228 

14 

.9789 

40 

.9396 

66 

.8816 

91 

.8199 

15 

.9778 

41 

.9376 

67 

.8793 

92 

.8172 

16 

.9766 

42 

.9356 

68 

.8769 

93 

.8145 

17 

.9753 

43 

.9335 

69 

.8745 

94 

.8118 

18 

.9741 

44 

.9314 

70 

.8721 

95 

.8089 

19 

.9728 

45 

.9292 

71 

.8696 

96 

.8061 

20 

.9716 

46 

.9270 

72 

.8672 

97 

.8031 

21 

.9704 

47 

.9249 

73 

.8649 

98 

.8001 

22 

.9691 

48 

.9228 

74 

.8625 

99 

.7969 

23 

.9678 

49 

.9206 

75 

.8603 

100 

.7938 

24 

.9665 

50 

.9184 

In  this  table  every  alternate  number  is  the  result  of  a  direct  synthetical 
experiment ;  absolute  alcohol  and  distilled  water  being  weighed  out  in  the 
proper  proportions,  and  mixed  by  agitation  in  stoppered  bottles ;  after  a 
lapse  of  three  or  four  days,  each  specimen  was  brought  exactly  to  60°  F., 
and  the  specific  gravity  determined  with  great  care. 


THE    CHEMIST'S    MANUAL. 


217 


TABLE 

OF  THE  PROPORTION  BY  VOLUME  OP  ABSOLUTE  OR  REAL  ALCOHOL  or 
100  VOLUMES  OF  SPIRITS  OF  DIFFERENT  SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  (GAY- 
LUSSAC)  AT  59°  F.  (15°  C.). 


100  VOLUMES  OF  SPIRITS. 

100  VOLUMES  OF  SPIRITS. 

100  VOLUMES  OF  SPIRITS. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

CONTAIN 
VOLUMES 

OF  REAL 

ALCOHOL. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

CONTAIN 

VOLUMES 

OF  REAL 

ALCOHOL. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

CONTAIN 
VOLUMES 

OF  REAL 

ALCOHOL. 

1.0000 

0 

09608 

34 

0.8956 

68 

.9985 

1 

.9594 

35 

.8932 

69 

.9970 

2 

.9581 

36 

.8907 

70 

.9956 

3 

.9567 

37 

.8882 

71 

.9942 

4 

.9553 

38 

.8857 

72 

.9929 

5 

.9538 

39 

.8831 

73 

.9916 

6 

.9523 

40 

.8805 

74 

.9903 

7 

.9507 

41 

.8779 

75 

.9891 

8 

.9491 

42 

.8753 

76 

.9878 

9 

.9474 

43 

.8726 

77 

.9867 

10 

.9457 

44 

.8699 

78 

.9855 

11 

.9440 

45 

.8672 

79 

.9844 

12 

.9422 

46 

.8645 

80 

.9833 

13 

.9404 

47 

.8617 

81 

.9822 

14 

.9386 

48 

.8589 

82 

.9812 

15 

.9367 

49 

.8560 

83   • 

.9802 

16 

.9348 

50 

.8531 

84 

.9792 

17 

.9329 

51 

.8502 

85 

.9782 

18 

.9309 

52 

.8472 

86 

.9773 

19 

.9289 

53 

.8442 

87 

.9763 

20 

.9269 

54 

.8411 

88 

.9753 

21 

.9248 

55 

.8379 

89 

.9742 

22 

.9227 

56 

.8346 

90 

.9732 

23 

.9206 

57 

.6312 

91 

.9721 

24 

.9185 

.  58 

.8278 

92 

.9711 

25 

.9163 

59 

.8242 

93 

.9700 

26 

.9141 

60 

.8206 

94 

.9690 

27 

.9119 

61 

.8168 

95 

.9679 

28 

.9096 

62 

.8128 

96 

.9668 

29 

.9073 

63 

.8086 

97 

.9657 

30 

.9050 

64 

.8042 

98 

.9645 

31 

.9027 

65 

.8006 

99 

.8633 

32 

.9004 

66 

.7947 

100 

.9621 

33 

.8980 

67 

218 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


QUANTITIES  OF  ABSOLUTE  ALCOHOL  BY  WEIGHT, 

IN     MIXTURES    OF    ALCOHOL     AND    WATER    OF    THE     FOL- 
LOWINO    SPECIFIC    ORAVITIES.— (DRINKWATER.) 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 
AT  60°  F. 
(15°.5  C.) 

ALCOHOL 
BYW'GHT 

IK  100 
PARTS. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 
AT  60°  F. 
(15°.5  C.) 

ALCOHOL 

BYW'GHT 
IN  100 
PARTS. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 
AT  60°  F. 
(15°.5  C.) 

ALCOHOL 

BYW'GHT 

IN  100 
PARTS. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 

AT  6U°  F. 

(15°.5  C.) 

ALCOHOL 

BYW'GHT 
IN  100 
PARTS. 

1.0000 

0.00 

0.9959 

2.22 

0.9918 

4.64 

0.9877 

7.30 

.9999 

0.05 

.9958 

2.28 

.9917 

4.70 

.9876 

7.37 

.9998 

0.11 

.9957 

2.34 

.9916 

4.76 

.9875 

7.43 

.9997 

0.16 

.9956 

2.39 

.9915 

4.82 

.9874 

7.50 

.9998 

0.21 

.9955 

2.45 

.9914 

4.88 

.9873 

7.57 

.9995 

0.26 

.9954 

2.51 

.9913 

4.94 

.9872 

7.64 

.9994 

0.32 

.9953 

2.57 

[  .9912 

5.01 

.9871 

7.71 

.9993 

0.37 

.9952 

2.62 

.9911 

5.07 

.9870 

7.78 

.9992 

0.42 

.9951 

2.68 

.9910 

5.13 

.9869 

7.85 

.9991 

0.47 

.9950 

2.74 

.9909 

5.20 

.9868 

7.92 

.9990 

0.53 

.9949 

2.79 

.9908 

5.26 

.9867 

7.99 

.9989 

0.58 

.9948 

2.85 

.9907 

5.32 

.9866 

8.06 

.9988 

0.64 

.9947 

2.91 

.9906 

5.39 

.9865 

8.13 

.9987 

0.69 

.9946 

2.97 

.9905 

5.45 

.9864 

8.20 

.9986 

0.74' 

.9945 

302 

.9904 

5.51 

.9863 

8.27 

.9985 

0.80 

.9944 

3.08 

.9903 

5.58 

.9862 

8.34 

.9984 

0.85 

.9943 

3.14 

.9902 

5.64 

.9861 

8.41 

.9983 

0.91 

.9942 

3.20 

.9901 

5.70 

.9860 

8.48 

.9982 

0.96 

.9941 

3.26 

.9900 

5.77 

.9859 

8.55 

.9981 

1.02 

.9940 

3.32 

.9899 

5.83 

.9858 

8.62 

.9980 

1.07 

.9939 

3.37 

.9898 

5.89 

.9857 

8.70 

.9979 

1.12 

.9938 

3.43 

.9897 

5.96 

.9856 

8.77 

.9978 

1.18 

.9937 

3.49 

.9896 

6.02 

.9855 

8.84 

.9977 

1.23 

.9936 

3.55 

.9895 

6.09 

.9854 

8.91 

.9976 

1.29 

.9935 

3.61 

.9894 

6.15 

.9853 

8.98 

.9975 

1.34 

.9934 

3.67 

.9893 

6.22 

.9852 

9.05 

.9974 

1.40 

.9933 

3.73 

.9892 

6.29 

.9851 

9.12 

.9973 

1.45 

.9932 

3.78 

.9891 

6.35 

.9850 

9.20 

.9972 

1.51 

.9931 

3.84 

.9890 

6.42 

.9849 

9.27 

.9971 

1.56 

.9930 

3.90 

.9889 

649 

.9848 

9.34 

.9970 

1.61 

.9929 

3.96 

.9888 

6.55 

.9847 

9.41 

,9969 

1.67 

.9928 

4.02 

.9887 

6.62 

.9846 

9.49 

.9968 

1.73 

.9927 

4.08 

.9886 

6.69 

.9845 

9.56 

.9967 

1.78 

.9926 

4.14 

.9885  . 

6.75 

.  .9844 

9.63 

.9966 

1.83 

.9925 

4.20 

.9884 

6.82 

.9843 

9.70 

.9965 

1.89 

.9924 

4.27 

.9883 

6.89 

.9842 

9.78 

.9964 

1.94 

.9923 

4.33 

.9882 

6.95 

.9841 

9.85 

.9963 

1.99 

.9922 

4.39 

.9881 

7.02 

.9840 

9.92 

.9962 

2.05 

.9921 

4.45 

.9880 

7.09 

.9839 

9.99 

.9961 

2.11 

.9920 

4.51 

.9879 

7.16 

.9838 

10.07 

.9960 

2.17 

.9919 

4.57 

.9878 

7.23 

This  Table  is  founded  on  synthetic  experiments,  in  which  eleven  differ- 
ent mixtures  of  alcohol  and  water  were  made,  containing  respectively  0.5, 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10  per  cent  of  alcohol  by  weight :  the  alcohol  em- 
ployed had  a  specific  gravity  of  0.7938  at  60°  F.  or  15°. 5  C. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


219 


TABLE* 

OF  THE  QUANTITY  OF  REAL  ALCOHOL  CONTAINED  IN  100  PARTS  OF 
AQUEOUS  ALCOHOL  BY  WEIGHT  AND  BY  VOLUME  AT  DIFFERENT 
DENSITIES.  (Temperature,  15°  C.) 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

100  VOLUMES 
CONTAIN  : 

100  PAJJTS 
BY  WEIGHT 

CONTAIN  : 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

100  VOLUMES 
CONTAIN  : 

100  PARTS 
BY  WEIGHT 
CONTAIN  : 

Alcohol 

Water. 

Alcohol. 

Alcohol 

Water. 

Alcohol. 

.7951 

100 

0.00 

100.00 

.9348 

50 

53.72 

42.53 

.8000 

99 

1.28 

98.38 

.9366 

49 

54.70 

41.59 

.8016 

98 

2.54 

96.83 

.9385 

48 

55.68 

40.66 

.8089 

97 

3.77 

95.35 

.9403 

47 

56.66 

39.74 

.8130 

96 

4.97 

93.89 

.9421 

46 

57.64 

38.82 

,8169 

95 

6.16 

92.45 

.9439 

45 

58.61 

37.90 

.8203 

94 

7.32 

91.08 

.9456 

44 

59.54 

37.00 

.8242 

93 

8.48 

89.72 

.9473 

43 

60.58 

36.09 

,8277 

92 

9.62 

88.37 

.9490 

42 

61.50 

35.18 

.8311 

91 

10.76 

87.04 

.9506 

41 

62.46 

34.30 

.8344 

90 

11.88 

85.74 

.9522 

40 

63.42 

33.40 

.8377 

89 

1301 

84.47 

.9538 

39 

64.37 

32.53 

.8409 

88 

14.12 

83.22 

.9553 

38 

65.32 

81.63 

.8440 

87 

15.23 

81.96 

-9568 

37 

66.S6 

30.75 

.8470 

86 

16.32 

80.72 

.9582 

36 

67.20 

29.88 

.8500 

85 

17.42 

79.51 

.9595 

35 

68.12 

29.01 

.8530 

84 

18.52 

78.29 

.9607 

34 

69.04 

28.14 

.8559 

83 

19.61 

77.09 

.9620  ' 

33 

69.96 

27.27 

.8583 

82 

20.68 

75.91 

.9633 

32 

70.89 

26.41 

,8616 

81 

21.76 

74.75 

.9645 

31 

71.80 

25.56 

.8644 

80 

22.82 

7359 

.9657 

30 

72.72 

24.70 

.8671 

79 

23.90 

72.43 

.9668 

29 

73.62 

23.85 

.8698 

78 

24.96 

71.30 

.9679 

28 

74.53 

23.00 

.872.5 

77 

23.03 

70.16 

.9690 

27 

75.43 

22.16 

.8752 

76 

27.09 

69.04 

.9700 

26 

76.83 

21.31 

.8778 

75 

23.15 

67.93 

.9711 

25 

77.23 

20.47 

.8804 

74 

29.20 

66.82 

.9721 

24 

78.13 

19.63 

.8830 

73 

30.26 

65.72 

.9731 

23 

79.09 

18.79 

.8855 

72 

31.30 

64.64 

.9741 

22 

79.92 

17.96 

.8880 

71 

32.35 

63.58 

.9751 

21 

80.81 

17.12 

•  .8905 

70 

33.39 

62.50 

.9761 

20 

81.71 

16.29 

.8930 

69 

34.44 

61.43 

.9771 

19 

82.60 

15.46 

.8954 

68 

35.47 

60.38 

.9781 

18 

83.50 

14.63 

.8978 

67 

36.51 

59.33 

.9791 

17 

84.39 

13.80 

.9002 

66 

37.54 

58.29 

.9801 

16 

85.29 

12.98 

.9026 

65 

38.58 

57.25 

.9812 

15 

86.19 

12.15 

.9049 

64 

39.60 

56.23 

.9822 

14 

87.09 

11.33 

.9072 

63 

40.63 

55.21 

.9833 

13 

88.00 

10.51 

.9095 

62 

41.65 

54.20 

.9844 

12 

88.90 

9.69 

.9117 

61 

42.67 

53.19 

.9855 

11 

89.80 

8.87 

.9139 

60 

43.68 

52.20 

.9867 

10 

90.72 

8.06 

.9161 

59 

44.70 

51.20 

.9878 

9 

91.62 

7.24 

.9183 

58 

45.72 

50.21 

.9890 

8 

92.54 

6.43 

.9205 

57 

46.73 

49.24 

.9902 

7 

93.45 

5.62 

.9226 

56 

47.73 

48.26 

.9915 

6 

94.38 

4.81 

.9247 

55 

48.74 

47.29 

.9928 

5 

95.30 

4.00 

.9267 

54 

49.74 

46.33 

.9942 

4 

96.24 

3.20 

.9388 

sa 

50.74 

45.37 

.9956 

3 

97-17 

2.40 

.9308 

52 

51.74 

44.41 

.9970 

2 

98.11 

1.60 

.9328 

51 

52.73 

43.47 

.9985 

1 

99.05 

0.80 

*  Exam.  Med.  Chemicals,  Hoffmann,  p.  119. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


TABLE* 

OP  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OP  HYDROCHLORIC-ACID  GAS  CONTAINED 
IN  100  PARTS  BY  WEIGHT  OP  AQUEOUS  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  AT 
DIFFERENT  DENSITIES.  (Temperature,  16°  C) 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT 

OP 

HYDRO- 
CHLORIC 
ACID. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT 

OF 

HYDRO- 
CHLORIC 
ACID. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT 

OF 

HYDRO- 
CHLORIC 
ACID. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT 

OF 

HYDRO- 
CHLORIC 
ACID. 

1.2013 

41 

1.1551 

31.25 

1.1056 

21.5 

1.0573 

11.75 

1.200.2 

40.75 

1.1539 

31 

1.1044 

21.25 

1.0561 

11.5 

1.1991 

40.5 

1.1526 

30.75 

1.1031 

21 

1.0549 

11.25 

1.1930 

40.25 

1.1513 

30.5 

1.1019 

20.75 

1.0537 

11 

1.1969 

40 

1.1501 

30.25 

1.1007 

20.5 

1.0524 

10.75 

1.1918 

39.75 

1.1488 

30 

1.0994 

20.25 

1.0512 

10.5 

1.1917 

39.5 

1.1475 

29.75 

1.0982 

20 

1.0500 

10.25 

1.1936 

39.25 

.1462 

29.5 

1.0969 

19.75 

1.0488 

10 

1.1925 

39 

.1450 

29.25 

1.0957 

19.5 

1.0475 

9.75 

1.1913 

38.75 

.1437 

29 

1.0945 

19.25 

1.0463 

9.5 

1.1902 

385 

.1424 

28.75 

1.0932 

19 

1.0451 

9.25 

1.1890 

38.25 

.1412 

28.5 

1.0920 

•  18.75 

1.0439 

9 

1.1878 

38 

.1399 

28.25 

1.0907 

18.5 

1.0427 

8.75 

1.1867 

37.75 

.1386 

28 

1.0895 

18.25 

1.0414 

8.5 

1.1855 

37.5 

.1373 

27.75 

1.0883 

18 

1.0402 

8.25 

1.1841 

37.25 

.1361 

27.5 

1.0870 

17.75 

1.0390 

8 

1.1833 

37 

1348 

27.25 

1.0858 

17.5 

1.0378 

7.75 

1.1831 

36.75 

.1335 

27 

1.0845 

17.25 

1.0366 

7.5 

1.1810 

36.5 

.1323 

26.75 

1.0833 

17 

1.0353 

7.25 

1.1798 

36.25 

.1310 

26.5 

1.0821 

16.75 

1.0341 

7 

1.1787 

38 

.1297 

26.25 

1.0807 

16.5 

1.0329 

6.75 

1.1775 

35.75 

.1284 

26 

1.0795 

16.25 

1.0317 

6.5 

1.1763 

35.5 

.1272 

25.75 

1.0783 

16 

1.0805 

6.25 

1.1752 

35.25 

.1259 

25.5 

1.0770 

15.75 

10292 

6 

1.1739 

35 

1.1246 

25.25 

1.0758 

15.5 

1.0280 

5.75 

1.1727 

34.75 

1.1234 

25 

1.0746 

15.25 

1.0268 

5.5 

1.1714 

34.5 

1.1221 

24.75 

1.0733 

15 

1.0256 

5.25 

1.1702 

34.25 

1.1208 

24.5 

1.0721 

14.75 

1.0244 

5 

1.1689 

34 

1.1196 

24.25 

1.0709 

14.5 

1.0231 

475 

1.1877 

33.75 

1.1183 

24 

1.0696 

14.25 

1.0219 

4.5 

1.1664 

X33.5 

1.1170 

23.75 

1.0684 

14 

1.0207 

4.25 

1.1652 

33.25 

1.1157 

23.5 

1.0672 

13.75 

1.0195 

4 

1.1639 

33 

1.1145 

23.25 

1.0859 

13.5 

1.0170 

3.5 

1.1637 

32.75 

1.1132 

23 

1.0647 

13.25 

1.0146 

3 

1.1614 

32.5 

1.1119 

22.75 

1.0635 

13 

1.0122 

2.5 

1.1652 

32.25 

1.1107 

22.5 

1.0622 

12.75 

1.0097 

2 

1.1589 

32 

1.1094 

22.25 

1.0610 

12.5 

1.0073 

1.5 

1.1577 

31.75 

1.1081 

22 

1.0598 

12.25 

1.0048 

1 

1.1564 

31.5 

1.1069 

21.75 

1.0585 

12 

1.0024 

0.5 

*  Taken  from  "  Manual  Chem.  Anal.,"  by  Fred.  Hoffmann,  p.  87. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


221 


The  density  of  the  aqueous  acid  being  decreased  by  an  increase  of  tem- 
perature, and  increased  by  a  decrease  of  temperature,  the  consequent 
change  of  the  specific  gravity  amounts  for  each  degree  of  the  Centigrade 
thermometer  in  either  direction — 

For  acids  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.1739  to  those  of  1.1386  to  about  0.0005 

1.1335          "          1.0982        "        0.0004 
1.0932    •     "          1.0635        "        0.0003 

For  instance :  An  acid  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.1234  at  16°  C.,  containing 
25  per  cent  of  hydrochloric-acid  gas,  will  have  at  18.5°  C.  a  specific  gravity 
of  (1.1234  -  0.004  x  2.5  =  )  1.1224,  and  at  13.5°  C.  a  specific  gravity  of 
(1.1234  +  0.004  x  2.5  =)  1.1244. 


TABLE* 

OF  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OP  NITRIC  OXIDE  (N2O5)  AND  OF  MONO- 

HYDRATED    NlTRIC    ACID    CONTAINED    IN    100    PARTS    BY    WEIGHT   OF 

AQUEOUS    NITRIC    ACID   AT   DIFFERENT    DENSITIES.      (Temperature, 
17.5°  C.) 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER 

CENT  OF 

N205. 

PER  CENT 
OF  N2O5 
+  H30. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER 

CENT  OF 

N205. 

PER  CENT 
OF  N,05 

+H2b. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER 

CENT   OF 

N205. 

PER  CENT 
OF  NoOs 
+  H.,0. 

1.523 

85 

99.16 

1.472 

72 

84.00 

1.417 

59 

68.83 

1.521 

84.5 

98.58 

1.470 

71.5 

83.41 

1.414 

58.5 

68.25 

1.519 

84 

98.00 

1.469 

71 

82.83 

1.412 

58 

67.66 

1.517 

83.5 

97.41 

1.467 

70.5 

82.24 

1.409 

57.5 

67.08 

1.516 

83 

96.83 

1.465 

70 

81.66 

1.406 

57 

66.50 

1.514 

82.5 

96.24 

1.462 

69.5 

81.08 

1.403. 

56.5 

65.91 

1.512 

82 

95.66 

1.460 

69 

80.50 

1.400 

56 

6533 

1.510 

81.5 

95.08 

1.458 

68.5 

79.91 

1.397 

55.5 

64.75 

1.508 

81 

94.50 

1.456 

68 

79.33 

1.394 

55 

64.16 

1.506 

80.5 

93.91 

1.454 

67.5 

78.75 

1.392 

54.5 

63.58 

1.504 

80 

93.33 

1.451 

67 

78.16 

1.389 

54 

63.00 

1.502 

79.5 

92.74 

1.449 

66.5 

77.58 

1.386 

535 

62.41 

1.500 

79 

92.16 

1.447 

66 

77.00 

1.383 

53 

61.83 

1.498 

78.5 

91.58 

1.444 

65.5 

76.41 

1.380 

52.5 

61.25 

1.496 

78 

91.00 

1.442 

65 

75.83 

1.377 

52 

60.66 

1,494 

77.5 

90.41 

1.440 

64.5 

75.25 

1.374 

51.5 

60.08 

1.492 

77 

89.83 

1.438 

64 

74.66 

1.371 

51 

59.50 

1.490 

76.5 

89.24 

1.436 

63.5 

74.08 

1.368 

50.5 

58.91 

1.488 

76 

88.66 

1.434 

63 

73.50 

1.364 

50 

58.33 

1.486 

75.5 

88.08 

1.432 

62.5 

72.91 

1.361 

49.5 

57.75 

1.484 

75 

87.50 

1.430 

62 

72.33 

1.358 

49 

57.16 

1.482 

74.5 

86.91 

1.428 

61.5 

71.75 

1.355 

48.5 

56.58 

1.480 

74 

86.33 

1.426 

61 

71.16 

1.352 

48 

56.00 

1.478 

73.5 

85.74 

1.424 

60.5 

70.58 

1.349 

47.5 

55.41 

1.476 

73 

85.16 

1.422 

60 

70.00 

1.345 

47 

54.83 

1.474 

72.5 

84.58 

1.419 

59.5 

69.41 

1.342 

46.5 

54.25 

*  Taken  from  "Man.  Chem.  Anal.,"  by  Fred.  Hoffmann,  1873,  p.  94. 


222 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY 

PER 

CENT   OF 

N205. 

PER  CENT 
OF  N305 
+  H20. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER 

CENT   OF 
N205. 

PER  CENT 

OF  IS.^O. 

+  H20. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER 

CENT    OF 

N205. 

PER  CENT 
OF  N.O5 
+  H2O. 

1.338 

46 

53.66 

1.236 

32.5 

37.91 

1.132 

19 

22.16 

1.334 

45.5 

53.08 

1.232 

32 

37.33 

1.129 

18.5 

21.58 

1.330 

45 

52.50 

1.228 

31.5 

36.75 

1.125 

18 

21.00 

1.327 

44.5 

51.91 

1.224 

31 

36.16 

1.122 

17.5 

20.41 

1.323 

44 

51.33 

1.220 

30.5 

35.58 

1.118 

17 

1983 

1.319 

43.5 

50.75 

1.217 

30 

35.00 

1.114 

16.5 

1925 

1.315 

43 

50.16 

1.213 

29.5 

34.41 

1.111 

16 

18.66 

1.312 

42.5 

49.58 

1.209 

29 

33.83 

1.107 

15.5 

18.08 

1.308 

42 

49.00 

1.205 

28.5 

33.25 

1.104 

15 

17.50 

1.304 

41.5 

48.41 

1.201 

28 

32.66 

1.100 

14.5 

16.91 

1.301 

41 

47.83 

1.198 

27.5 

32.08 

1.096 

14 

16.33 

1.297 

40.5 

47.25 

1.194 

27 

31.50 

1.092 

13.5 

15.74 

1.294 

40 

46.66 

1.190 

26.5 

30.91 

1.089 

13 

15.16 

1.290 

39.5 

46.08 

1.186 

26 

.  30.33 

1.086 

12.5 

1458 

1.287 

39 

45.50 

1.182 

25.5 

29.74 

1.082 

12 

14.00 

1.283 

38.5 

44.91 

1.178 

25 

29.16 

1.078 

11.5 

13.41 

1.279 

38 

44.33 

1.174 

24.5 

28.58 

1.075 

11 

12.83 

1.275 

87.5 

43.75 

1.170 

24 

28.00 

1.071 

10.5 

12,25 

1.271 

37 

43.16 

1.167 

23.5 

27.41 

1.C68 

10 

11.66 

1.267 

36.5 

42.58 

1.163 

23 

26.83 

1.064 

9.5 

11.07 

1.263 

36 

42.00 

1.159 

22.5 

26.25 

1.060 

9 

10.50 

1.259 

35.5 

41.41 

1.155 

22 

25.66 

1.056 

8.5 

991 

1.255 

35 

40.83 

1.151 

21.5 

25.08 

1.C53 

8 

9.33 

1.251 

34.5 

40.25 

1.147 

21 

24.49 

1.050 

7.5 

8.84 

1.247 

34 

39.66 

1.143 

20.5 

23.91 

1.045 

7 

8.16 

1.243 

33.5 

39.08 

1.140 

20 

23.33 

1.038 

6 

7.00 

1.239 

33 

38.50    1 

1.136 

19.5 

22.74 

1.C32 

5 

5.83 

NOTE. — With  the  decrease  and  increase  of  temperature,  the  density  of 
Nitric  Acid  suffers  a  corresponding  increase  or  decrease,  amounting  for  each 
degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer  in  either  direction— 

For  acids  of  a  sp.  gr.  of  1.492  to  those  of  1.476  to  0.00213  in  the  average. 

1.472 

1.454 

1.430 

1.406 

1.377 

1.345 

1.308 

1.271 

1.232 

1.194 

1.155 

For  instance:  An  acid  of  1.178  specific  gravity  at  17.5°  C.,  containing 
25  per  cent  of  anhydrous,  or  29.16  per  cent  of  monohydrated,  Nitric  Acid, 
will  have,  at-  20°  C.,  a  specific  gravity  of  (1.178  -  0.00072  x  2.5  =)  1.762, 
and  at  15°  C.  <a  specific  gravity  of  (1.178  +  0.00072  x  2.5  =)  1.1798. 


1.456 

"  0.002 

1.434 

"  0.00186 

1.412 

"  0.00171 

1.383 

"  0.00155 

1.352 

"  0.00141 

1.315 

"  0.00128 

1.279 

"  0.00114 

1.239 

"  0.001 

1.201 

"  0.00085 

1.163 

"  0.00071 

1.125 

"  0.0005 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


223 


TAB  LE* 

OF  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OP  PHOSPHORIC  OXIDE  (P205)  AND  OP 
TRI  HYDRATED  PHOSPHORIC  ACID  CONTAINED  IN  100  PARTS  BY  WEIGHT 
OF  AQUEOUS  PHOSPHORIC  ACID  AT  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES. 
(TEMPERATURE,  17.5°  C.) 


SPECIFIC 

PER  CENT  OF 

PER  CENT  OF 

SPECIFIC 

PER  CENT  OF 

PER  CENT  OF 

GRAVITY. 

P.05. 

P205+3H20. 

GRAVITY. 

P205. 

P205  +  3H20. 

1.809 

68 

93.67 

1.469 

46.5 

64.06 

1.800 

67.5 

92.99 

1.462 

46 

63.37 

1.792 

67 

92.30 

1.455 

45.5 

62.68 

1.783 

66.5 

91.61 

1.448 

45 

61.99 

1.775 

66 

90.92 

1.441 

44.5 

61.30 

1.766 

65.5 

90.23 

1.435 

44 

60.61 

1.758 

65 

89.54 

1.428 

43.5 

59.92 

1.750 

64.5 

88.85 

1.422 

43 

59.23 

1.741 

64 

88.16 

1.415 

42.5 

58.55 

1.733 

63.5 

87.48 

1.409 

42 

57.86 

1.725 

63 

86.79 

1.402 

41:5 

57.17 

1.717 

62.5 

86.10 

1.393 

41 

56.48 

1.709 

62 

85.41 

1.389 

40.5 

55.79 

1.701 

61.5 

84.72 

1.383 

40 

55.10 

1.693 

61 

84.03 

1.377 

39.5 

54.41 

1.635 

60.5 

83.34 

1.371 

39 

53.72 

1.677 

60 

82.65 

1.365 

38.5 

53.04 

1.669 

59.5 

81.97 

1.359 

38 

52.35 

1.661 

59 

81.28 

1.354 

37.5 

51.66 

1.653 

58.5 

80.59 

1.348 

37 

50.97 

1.645 

58 

79.90 

1.342 

36.5 

50.28 

1.637 

57.5 

79.21 

1.336 

36 

49.59 

1.629 

57 

78.52 

1.330 

35.5 

48.90 

1.621 

56.5 

77.83 

1.325 

35 

48.21 

1.613 

56 

77.14 

1.319 

34.5 

47.52 

1.605 

55.5 

76.45 

1.314 

34 

46.84 

1.597 

55 

75.77 

1.308 

33.5 

46.15 

1.589 

54.5 

75.08 

1.303 

33 

45.46 

1.581 

54 

74.39 

1.298 

32.5 

44.77 

1.574 

53.5 

73.70 

1.292 

32 

44.08 

1.566 

53 

73.01 

1.287 

31.5 

43.39 

1.559 

52.5 

72.32 

1.281 

31 

42.70 

1.551 

52 

71.63 

1.276 

30.5 

42.01 

1.543 

51.5 

70.94 

1.271 

30 

41.33 

1.536 

51 

70.26 

1.265 

29.5 

40.64 

1.528 

50.5 

69.57 

1.260 

20 

39.95 

.   1.521 

50 

68.88 

1.255 

2'8.5 

39.26 

1.513 

495 

68.19 

1.249 

28 

38.57 

1.505 

49 

67.50 

1.244 

27.5 

37.88 

1.498 

48.5 

66.81 

1.239 

27 

37.19 

1.491 

48 

66.12 

1.233 

26.5 

36.50 

1.484 

47.5 

65.43 

1.228 

26 

35.82 

1.476 

47 

64.75 

1.223 

25.5 

35.13 

Loc.  cit.  (Hoffman),  p.  101. 


224: 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


TABLE  OF  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT,  ETC. — (Continued) 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
P205. 

PER  CENT  OF 
P205-t3H20. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
P306. 

PER  CENT  OF 

P.Oa+SH.O. 

1.218 

25 

34.44 

1.109 

13.5 

18.60 

1.213 

24.5 

33.75 

1.104 

13 

17.91 

1.208 

24 

33.06 

1.100 

12.5 

17.22 

1.203 

23.5 

32.37 

1.096 

12 

16.53 

1.198 

23 

31.68 

1.091 

11.5 

15.84 

1.193 

22.5 

30.99 

1.087 

11 

15.15 

1.188 

22 

30.31 

1.083 

10.5 

14.46 

1.183 

21.5 

29.62 

1.079 

10 

1377 

1.178 

21 

28.93 

1.074 

9.5 

13.09 

1.174 

20.5 

28.24 

1.070 

9 

12.40 

1.169 

20 

27.55 

1.066 

8.5 

11.71 

1.164 

19.5 

2686 

1.062 

8 

11.02 

1.159 

19 

26.17 

1.058 

7.5 

10.33 

1.155 

18.5 

25.48 

1.053 

7 

9.64 

1.150 

18 

24.80 

1.049 

6.5 

8.95 

1.145 

17.5 

24.11 

1.045 

6 

8.26 

1.140 

17 

23.42 

1.041 

5.5 

7.57 

1.135 

16.5 

22.73 

1.037 

5 

6.89 

1.130  . 

16 

22.04 

1.033 

4.5 

620 

1.126 

15.5 

21.35 

1.029 

4 

5.51 

1.122 

15 

20.66 

1.025 

3.5 

4.82 

1.118 

14.5 

19.97 

1.021 

3 

4.13 

1.113 

14 

19.28 

1.017 

2.5 

3.44 

NOTE. — With  the  decrease  or  increase  of  temperature,  the  density  of 
phosphoric  acid  suffers  a  corresponding  increase  or  decrease,  amounting  for 
each  degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer  in  either  direction : 

For  acids  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.809  to  those  of  1.613  to  about  0.001. 


1.597 
1.448 
1.325 
1.218 
1.113 


1.462 
1.336 
1.228 
1.122 
1.079 


0.00082. 

0.00068. 

0.00052. 

0.0004. 

0.00035. 


For  instance:  An  acid  of  1.130  Sp.  Gr.  at  17.5°  C.,  containing  16  per 
cent,  of  phosphoric  oxide  (P2O5)  or  22.04  per  cent  of  tri-hydrated  phosphoric 
acid,  will  have,  at  20°  C.,  a  Sp.  Gr.  of  (1.130  -  0.0004  x  2.5  =)  1.129,  and  at 
15°  C.,  a  Sp.  Gr.  of  (1.130  +  0.0004  x  2.5  =)  1.131. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


225 


TAB  LE* 

OF  THE   QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT   OP  SULPHURIC  OXIDE  (S03)  AND  OP 

MONOHYDRATED     SULPHURIC     ACID     CONTAINED      IN     100     PARTS     BY 

WEIGHT  OF  AQUEOUS  SULPHURIC  ACIDS  AT  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES. 

(Temperature,  17.5°  C.) 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER 

CENT  OF 
SO3. 

PER 

CENT 
OF  SO  3 

+  H20. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER 

CENT  OF 

S03. 

PER 

CENT 
OF  SO  3 

+  H20. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER 

CENT  OF 

S03. 

PER 

CENT 
OF  SO  3 

+  H20. 

1.841 

81.6 

100 

1.559 

53.8 

66 

1.235 

26.1 

32 

1.840 

80.8 

99 

1.547 

53.0 

65 

1.257 

25.3 

31 

1.839 

80.0 

98 

1.536 

52.2 

64 

1.219 

24.5 

30 

1.838 

79.2 

97 

1  .525 

51.4 

63 

1.211 

23.6 

29 

1.837 

78.3 

96 

1.514 

50.6 

62 

1.202 

22.8 

28 

1.835 

77.5 

95 

1.503 

49.8 

61 

1.194 

22.0 

27 

1.833 

76.7 

94 

1.493 

49.0 

60 

1.186 

21.2 

26 

1.830 

75.9 

93 

1.482 

48.1 

59 

1.178 

20.4 

25 

1.826 

75.1 

92 

1.471 

47.3 

58 

1.170 

19.6 

24 

1.821 

74.3 

91 

1.461 

46.5 

57 

1.163 

18.7 

23 

1.815 

73.4 

90 

1.450 

45.7 

56 

1.155 

17.9 

22 

1.808 

72.6 

89 

1.440 

44.9 

55 

1.147 

17.1 

21 

1.800 

71.8 

88 

1.430 

44.0 

54 

1.140 

16.3 

20 

1.791 

71.0 

87 

1.420 

43.2 

53 

1.132 

15.5 

19 

1.782 

70.1 

86 

1.411 

42.4 

52 

1.125 

14.7 

18 

1.774 

69.4 

85 

1.401 

41.6 

51 

1.117 

13.8 

17 

1.765 

68.5 

84 

1.392 

40.8 

50 

1.110 

13.0 

16 

1.755 

67.7 

83 

1.382 

40.0 

49 

1.103 

12.2 

15 

1.744 

66.9 

82 

1.373 

39.2 

48 

1.095 

11.4 

14 

1.733 

66.1 

81 

1.364 

38.3 

47 

1.088 

10.6 

13 

1.722 

653 

80 

1.354 

37.5 

46 

1.081 

9.8 

12 

1.711 

64.4 

79 

1.345 

36.7 

45 

1.074 

9.0 

11 

1.699 

63.6 

78 

1.336 

35.9 

44 

1.067 

8.1 

10 

1.688 

62.8 

77 

1.328 

35.1 

43 

1.060 

7.3 

9 

1.676 

62.0 

76 

1.319 

34.3 

42 

1.053 

6.5 

8 

1.665 

61.2 

75 

1.310 

33.4 

41 

1.046 

5.7 

7 

1.653 

60.4 

74 

1.302 

32.6 

40 

1.039 

4.9 

6 

1.641 

59.6 

73 

1.293 

31.8 

39 

1.032 

4.1 

5 

1.629 

58.7 

72 

1.285 

31.0 

38 

1.025 

3.2 

4 

1.617 

57.9 

71 

1.276 

30.2 

37 

1.019 

2.4 

3 

1.605 

57.1 

70 

1.268 

29.4 

36 

1.012 

1.6 

2 

1.593 

56.3 

69 

1.260 

28.5 

35 

1.006 

0.8 

1 

1.582 

55.5 

68 

1.251 

27.7 

34 

1.003 

0.4 

0.5 

1.570 

54.7 

67 

1.243 

26.9 

33 

0.000 

0. 

0 

*  Loc.  cit.  (Hoffmann),  p.  108. 


15 


226 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NOTE. — With  the  decrease  and  increase  of  temperature,  the  density  of 
sulphuric  acid  suffers  a  corresponding  increase  or  decrease,  amounting  for 
each  degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer  in  either  direction  : 

For  acids  of  a  Sp.  Gr.  of  1.841  to  those  of  1.782  to  about  0.0014. 


1.774 
1.653 
1.293 
1.211 
1.132 


1.665 
1.302 
1.219 
1.140 
1.067 


0.0012. 

0.001. 

0.00075. 

0.00045. 

0.00047. 


TABLE* 

OF  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OF  PUKE  ETHYLIC  ETHER  CONTAINED 
IN  100  PARTS  BY  WEIGHT  OF  ETHER  AT  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES. 
(Temperature,  17.5°  C.) 


PEE 

PER 

PER 

PER 

SPECIFIC 

CENT  OF 

SPECIFIC 

CENT  OF 

SPECIFIC 

CENT  OF 

SPECIFIC 

CENT  OF 

GRAVITY. 

ETHYLIC 

GRAVITY. 

ETHYLIC 

GRAVITY. 

ETHYLIC 

GRAVITY. 

ETHYLIC 

ETHEK. 

ETHER. 

ETHER. 

ETHER. 

0.7185 

100 

0.7310 

87 

0.7456 

74 

0.7614 

61 

.7198 

99 

.7320 

86 

.7468 

73 

.7627 

60 

.7206 

98 

.7331 

85 

.7480 

72 

.7640 

59 

.7215 

97 

.7342 

84 

.7492 

71 

.7653 

58 

.7224 

96 

.7353 

83 

.7504 

70 

.7666 

57 

.7233 

95 

.7364 

82 

.7516 

69 

.7680 

56 

.7242 

94 

.7375 

81 

.7528 

68 

.7693 

55 

.7251 

93 

.7386 

80 

.7540 

67 

.7707 

54 

.7260 

92 

.7397 

79 

.7552 

66 

.7721 

53 

.7270 

91 

.7408 

78 

.7564 

65 

.7735 

52 

.7280 

90 

.7420 

77 

.7576 

64 

.7750 

51 

.7290 

89 

.7432 

76 

.7588 

63 

.7764 

50 

.7300 

88 

.7444 

75 

.7601 

62 

.7778 

49 

NOTE. — With  the  decrease  and  increase  of  temperature,  the  density  of 
ether  suffers  a  corresponding  increase  or  decrease,  amounting  for  each 
degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer  in  either  direction  : 

For  ether  of  a  Sp.  Gr.  of  0.7198  to  that  of  0.7331,  about  0.0013. 

«      .7342    "    .7504,   "   .0011. 

.7516    "    .7627,   "   .0009. 

.7640    "    .7764,   "   .0008. 

For  instance  :  An  ether  of  0.7206  specific  gravity  at  17.5°  C.,  containing 
98  per  cent  ethyl  oxide,  will  have,  at  20°  C.,  a  specific  gravity  of  (0.7206 
-0.0013  x  2.5=)  0.7173,  and,  at  15°  C.,  a  specific  gravity  of  (0.7206 
+  0.0013  x  2.5  =)  0.7239. 


*  Loc,  cit.  (Hoffmann),  p.  116. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


227 


TABLE* 

OF  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OF  AMMONIA  CONTAINED  IN  100  PARTS 
BY  WEIGHT  OF  AMMONIC  HYDRATE  AT  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES.  (Tem- 
perature, 14°  C.) 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
AMMONIA. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
AMMONIA. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
AMMONIA. 

0.8907 

33.0 

0.9127 

24.2 

0.9400 

15.4 

.8911 

32.8 

.9133 

24.0 

.9407 

15.2 

.8916 

32.6 

.9139 

23.8 

.9414 

15.0 

.8920 

32.4 

.9145 

23.6 

.9420 

14.8 

.8925 

32.2 

.9150 

23.4 

.9427 

14.6 

.8929 

32.0 

.9156 

23.2 

.9434 

14.4 

.8934 

31.8 

.9162 

23.0 

.9441 

14.2 

.8938 

31.6 

.9168 

22.8 

.9449 

14.0 

.8943 

31.4 

.9174 

22.6 

.9456 

13.8 

.8948 

31.2 

.9180 

22.4 

.9463 

13.6 

.8953 

31.0 

.9185 

22.2 

.9470 

13.4 

.8957 

30.8 

.9191 

22.0 

.9477 

13.2 

.8962 

30.6 

.9197 

21.8 

.9484 

13.0 

.8967 

30.4 

.9203 

21.6 

.9491 

12.8 

.8971 

30.2 

.9209 

21.4 

.9498 

12.6 

.8976 

30.0 

.9215 

21.2 

.9505 

12.4 

.8981 

29.8 

9221 

21.0 

.9512 

12.2 

.8986 

29.6 

.9227 

20.8 

.9520 

12.0 

.8991 

29.4 

.9233 

20.6 

.9527 

11.8 

.8996 

29.2 

.9239 

20.4 

.9534 

11.6 

.9001 

29.0 

.9245 

20.2 

.9542 

11.4 

.9006 

28.8 

.9251 

20.0 

.9549 

11.2 

.9011 

28.6 

.9257 

19.8 

.9556 

11.0 

.9016 

28.4 

.9264 

19.6 

.9563 

10.8 

.9021 

28.2 

.9271 

19.4 

.9571 

10.6 

.9026 

28.0 

.9277 

19.2 

.9578 

10.4 

.9031 

27.8 

.9283 

19.0 

.9586 

10.2 

.9036 

27.6 

.9289 

18.8 

.9593 

10.0 

.9041 

27.4 

.9296 

18.6 

.9601 

9.8 

.9047 

27.2 

.9302 

18.4 

.9608 

9.6 

.9052 

27.0 

.9308 

18.2 

.9616 

9.4 

.9057 

26.8 

.9314 

18.0 

.9623 

9.2 

.9063 

26.6 

.9321 

17.8 

.9631 

9.0 

.9068 

26.4 

.9327 

17.6 

.9639 

8.8 

.9073 

26.2 

.9333 

17.4 

.9647 

8.6 

.9078 

26.0 

.9340 

17.2 

.9654 

8.4 

.9083 

25.8 

.9347 

17.0 

.9662 

8.2 

.9089 

25.6 

.9353 

16.8 

.9670 

8.0 

.9094 

25.4 

.9360 

16.6 

.9677 

7.8 

.9100 

25.2 

.9366 

16.4 

.9685 

7.6 

.9106 

25.0 

.9373 

16.2 

.9693 

7.4 

.9111 

24.8 

.9380 

160 

.9701 

7.2 

.9116 

24.6 

.9386 

15.8 

.9709 

7.0 

.9122 

24.4 

.9393 

15.6 

.9717 

6.8 

*  Loc.  cit.  (Hoffman),  p.  145. 


228 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


TABLE  OF  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OF  AMMONIA,  ETC. — (Continued.} 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
AMMONIA. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
AMMONIA. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
AMMONIA. 

0.9725 

6.6 

0.9815 

4.4 

0.9907 

2.2 

.9733 

6.4 

.9823 

4.2 

.9915 

2.0 

.9741 

6.2 

.9831 

4.0 

.9924 

1.8 

.9749 

6.0 

.9839 

3.8 

.9932 

1.6 

.9757 

5.8 

.9847 

3.6 

.9941 

1.4 

.9765 

5.6 

.9855 

3.4 

.9950 

1.2 

.9773 

5.4 

.9863 

3.2 

.9959 

1.0 

.9781 

5.2 

.9873 

3.0 

.9967 

0.8 

.9790 

5.0 

.9882 

28 

.9975 

0.6 

.9799 

4.8 

.9890 

2.6 

.9983 

0.4 

.9807 

4.6 

.9899 

2.4 

.9991 

0.2 

NOTE. — With  the  decrease  and  increase  of  temperature,  the  density  of 
ammonic  hydrate  suffers  a  corresponding  increase  or  decrease,  amounting 
for  each  degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer  in  either  direction  : 

For  ammonic  hydrate  of  a  Sp.  Gr.  of  0.9001  to  that  of  0.9221  to  about  0.00055. 

0.9251  "  0.9414  "  0.0004. 
0.9520  "  0.9670  "  0.0003. 
0.9709  "  0.9831  "  0.0002. 

For  instance :  Ammonic  hydrate  of  0.9593  specific  gravity  at  14°  C., 
containing  10  per  cent  of  ammonia,  will  have,  at  18°  C.,  a  specific  gravity 
of  (0.9593  -  0.0003  x  4  =)  0.9581,  and  at  12°  C.,  a  specific  gravity  of  (0.9593 
+  0.0003  x  2  =)  0.9599. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


229 


TABLE* 

OF  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OF  POTASSIC  OXIDE  CONTAINED  IN  100 
PARTS  BY  WEIGHT  OF  POTASSIC  HYDRATE  AT  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES. 
(Temperature,  17.5°  C.) 


SPECIFIC 
GKAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
POT.  OXIDE. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
POT.  OXIDE. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
POT.  OXIDE. 

1.576 

45 

1.358 

30 

1.171 

15 

1.568 

44.5 

1.352 

29.5 

1.165 

14.5 

1.560 

44 

1.345 

29 

1.159 

14 

1.553 

43.5 

1.339 

28.5 

1.153 

13.5 

1.545 

43 

1.332 

28 

1.147 

13 

1537 

42.5 

1.326 

27.5 

1.141 

12.5 

1.530 

42 

1.320 

27 

1.135 

12 

1.522 

41.5 

1.313 

26.5 

1.129 

11.5 

1.514 

41 

1.307 

26 

1.123 

11 

1.507 

40.5 

1.301 

25.5 

1.117 

10.5 

1.500 

40 

1.294 

25 

1.111 

10 

1.492 

39.5 

1.288 

24.5 

1.105 

9.5 

1.484 

39 

1.282 

24 

1.099 

9 

1.477 

38.5 

1.275 

23.5 

1.094 

8.5 

1.470 

38 

1.269 

23 

1.088 

8 

1.463 

37.5 

1.263 

22.5 

1.082 

7.5 

1.456 

37 

1.257 

22 

1.076 

7 

1.449 

36.5 

1.250 

21.5 

1.070 

6.5 

1.442 

36 

1.244 

21 

1.065 

6 

1435 

35.5 

1.238 

20.5 

1.059 

5.5 

1.428 

35 

1.231 

20 

1.054 

5 

1.421 

34.5 

1.225 

19.5 

1.048 

4.5 

1.414 

34 

1.219 

19 

1.042 

4 

1.407 

33.5 

1.213 

18.5 

1.037 

3.5 

1.400 

33 

1.207 

18 

1.031 

3 

1.393 

32.5 

1.201 

17.5 

1.026 

2.5 

1.386 

32 

1.195 

17 

1.021 

2 

1.379 

31.5 

1.189 

16.5 

1.015 

1.5 

1.372 

31 

1.183 

16 

1.365 

30.5 

1.177 

15.5 

NOTE. — With  the  decrease  and  increase  of  temperature,  the  density  of 
the  solution  suffers  a  corresponding  increase  or  decrease,  amounting,  for 
each  degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer,  in  either  direction  : 

For  solution  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.576  to  that  of  1.500  to  about  0.00055. 

1.484  1.358  "         0.0005. 

1.345         "         1.231  "         0.0004. 

"  "  1.219         "         1.111  "        0.00033. 


Loc.  cit.  (Hoffmann),  p.  254. 


230 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


TABLE* 

OF  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OF  SODIC  OXIDE  CONTAINED  IN  100  PARTS 
BY  WEIGHT  OF  SODIC  HYDRATE  AT  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES.  (Tem- 
perature, 17.5°  C.) 


SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  or 
SOD.  OXIDE. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  OF 
SOD.  OXIDE. 

SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY. 

PER  CENT  or 
SOD.  OXIDE. 

1.500 

35 

1.353 

25 

1.210 

15 

1.492 

34.5 

1.345 

24.5 

1.203 

14.5 

1.485 

34 

1.338 

24 

1.195 

14 

1.477 

33.5 

1.331 

23.5 

1.188 

13.5 

1.470 

33 

1.324 

23 

1.181 

13 

1.463 

32.5 

1.317 

22.5 

1.174 

125 

1.455 

32 

1.309 

22 

1167 

12 

1.448 

31.5 

1.302 

21.5 

1.160 

11.5 

1.440 

31 

1.295 

21 

1.153 

11 

1.433 

30.5 

1.288 

20.5 

1.146 

10.5 

1.426 

30 

1.281 

20 

1.139 

10 

1.418 

29.5 

1.274 

19.5 

1.132 

9.5 

1.411 

29 

1.266 

19 

1.125 

9 

1.404 

28.5 

1.259 

18.5 

1.118 

8.5 

1.396 

28 

1.252 

18 

1.111 

8 

1.389 

27.5 

1.245 

17.5 

1.104 

7.5 

1.382 

27 

1.238 

17 

1.097 

7 

1.375 

26.5 

1.231 

16.5 

1.090 

6.5 

1.367 

26 

1.224 

16 

1.083 

6 

1.360 

25.5 

1.217 

15.5 

1.076 

5.5 

(Liquor  Natri  Caustic!  of  the  Pharmacopoea  Germanica  lias  a  specific 
gravity  of  from  1.330  to  1.334,  and  contains  from  30  to  31  per  cent  of  sodic 
hydrate,  or  about  23.5  per  cent  of  sodic  oxide.) 

NOTE. — With  the  decrease  and  increase  of  temperature,  the  density  of 
the  solution  suffers  a  corresponding  increase  and  decrease,  amounting  for 
each  degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer,  in  either  direction  : 

For  solution  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.500  to  that  of  1.353  to  about  0.00045. 

1.345         "         1.210        "        0.0004. 
1.203         "         1.076        "        0.00039. 


*  Loc.  tit  (Hoffmann),  p.  255. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


231 


DENSITY   OF  AQUEOUS   ACETIC   ACID. 

By    OUDEMAUS. 


°i 
41 

°l 

DENSITY. 

o| 

':i 

DENSITY. 

AT  0°  C. 

AT  15°. 

AT  40°. 

AT  0°  C. 

AT  15°. 

AT  40°. 

0 

0.999 

0.9992 

0.9924 

51 

1.0740 

1.0623 

1.0416 

1 

1.0016 

1.0007 

0.9936 

52 

1.0749 

1.0631 

1.0423 

2 

1.0033 

1.0022 

0.9948 

53 

1.0758 

1.0638 

1.0429 

3 

1.0051 

1.0037 

0.9960 

54 

1.0767 

10646 

1.0434 

4 

1.0069 

1.0052 

0.9972 

55 

1.0775 

1.0653 

1.0440 

5 

1.0088 

1.0067 

0.9984 

56 

1.0783 

1.0660 

1.0445 

6 

1.0106 

1.0083 

0.9996 

57 

1.0791 

1.0666 

1.0450 

7 

1.0124 

1.0098 

1.0008 

58 

1.0798 

1.0673 

1.0455 

8 

1.0142 

1.0113 

1.0020 

59 

1.0806 

1.0679 

1.0460 

9 

1.0159 

1.0127 

1.0088 

60 

1.0813 

1.0685 

1.0464 

10 

1.0176 

1.0142 

1.0044 

61 

1.0820 

1.0691 

1.0468 

11 

1.0194 

1.0157 

1.0056 

62 

1.0826 

1.0697 

1.0472 

12 

1.0211 

1.0171 

1.0067 

63 

1.0832 

1.0702 

1.0475 

13 

1.0288 

1.0185 

1.0079 

64 

1.0838 

1.0707 

1.0479 

14 

1.0245 

1.0200 

1.0090 

65 

1.0815 

1.0712 

1.0482 

15 

1.0262 

1.0214 

1.0101 

66 

1.0851 

1.0717 

1.0485 

16 

1.0279 

1.0228 

1.0112 

67 

1.0856 

1.0721 

1.0488 

17 

1.0295 

1.0242 

1.0123 

68 

1.0861 

1.0725 

1.0491 

18 

1.0311 

1.0256 

1.0134 

69 

1.0866 

1.0729 

1.C493 

19 

1.0327 

1.0270 

1.0144 

70 

1.0871 

1.0733 

1.0495 

20 

1.0343 

1.0284 

1.0155 

71 

1.0875 

1.0737 

1.0497 

21 

1.0359 

1.0298 

1.0166 

72 

1.0879 

1.0740 

1.0498 

22 

1.0374 

1.0311 

1.0176 

73 

1.0883 

1.0742 

1.0499 

23 

1.0390 

1.0324 

1.0187 

74 

1.0886 

1.0744 

1.0500 

24 

1.0405 

1.0337 

.  1.0197 

75 

1.0888 

1.0746 

1.0501 

25 

1.0420 

10350 

1.0207 

76 

1.0891 

1.0747 

1.0501 

26 

1.0435 

1.0363 

1.0217 

77 

1.0893 

1.0748 

1.0501 

27 

1.0450 

1.0375 

1.0227 

78 

1.0894 

1.0748 

1.0500 

28 

1.0465 

1.0388 

1.0236 

79 

1.0896 

1.0748 

1.0499 

29 

1.0479 

1.0400 

1.0246 

80 

1.08^7 

1.0748 

1.0497 

30 

1.0493 

1.0412 

1.0255 

81 

1.0897 

1.0747 

1.0495 

31 

1,0507 

1.0424 

1.0264 

82 

1.0897 

1.0746 

1.0492 

32 

1.0520 

1.0436 

1.0274 

83 

1.0896 

1.0744 

1.0489 

33 

1.0534 

1.0447 

1.0283 

84 

1.0894 

1.0742 

1.0485 

34 

1.0547 

1.0459 

1.0291 

85 

1.0892 

1.0739 

1.0481 

35 

1.0560 

1.0470 

1.0300 

86 

1.0889 

1.0736 

1.0475 

36 

1.0573 

1.0481 

1.0308 

87 

1.0885 

1.0731 

1.0469 

37 

1.0585 

1.0492 

1.0316 

88 

1.0881 

1.0726 

1.0462 

38 

1.0598 

1.0502 

1.0324 

89 

1.0876 

1.0720 

1.0455 

39 

1.0610 

1.0513 

1.0332 

90 

1.0871 

1.0713 

1.0447 

40 

1.0622 

1.0523 

1.0340 

91 

1.0705 

1.0438 

41 

1.0634 

1.0533 

1.0348 

92 

1.0696 

1.0428 

42 

1.0646 

1.0543 

1.0355 

93 

1.0686 

1.0416 

43 

1.0657 

1.0552 

1.0363 

94 

1.0674 

1.0403 

44 

1.0668 

1.0562 

1.0370 

95 

1.0660 

1.0388 

45 

1.0679 

1.0571 

1.0377 

96 

1.0644 

1.0370 

46 

1.0690 

1.0580 

1.0384 

97 

1.0625 

1.0350 

47 

1.0700 

1.0589 

1.0391 

98 

10604 

1.0327 

48 

1.0710 

1.0598 

1.0397 

99 

1.0580 

1.0301 

49 

1.0720 

1.0607 

1.0404 

100 

1.0553 

1.0273 

50 

1.0730 

1.0615 

1.0410 

232 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


TABLE* 

OP  THE  QUANTITY  BY  WEIGHT  OF  WATER  CONTAINED  IN  100  PARTS 
BY  WEIGHT  OF  GLYCERIN  AT  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES.     (Temperature 

17.5°  C.) 


~~j 

tt  - 

H  « 

E-  K 

£  r 

SPECIFIC 

H  JH 

SPECIFIC 

SPECIFIC 

H  H 

o  •< 

SPECIFIC 

K  Ej< 

GRAVITY. 

«S 

GRAVITY. 

M^ 

GRAVITY. 

GRAVITY. 

afr 

fifc 

£V   fe 

£  PH 

w  ^ 

W  o 

0 

0 

^0 

1.267 

0 

1.224 

13 

1.185 

26 

1.147 

39 

1.264 

1 

1.221 

14 

1.182 

27 

1.145 

40 

1.260 

2 

1.218 

15 

1.179 

28 

1.142 

41 

1.257 

3 

1.215 

16 

1.176 

29 

1.139 

42 

1.254 

4 

1.212 

17 

1.173 

30 

1.136 

43 

1.250 

5 

1.209 

18 

1.170 

31 

1.134 

44 

1.247 

6 

1.206 

19 

1.167 

32 

1.131 

45 

1.244 

7 

1.203 

20 

1.164 

33 

1.128 

46 

1.240 

8 

1.200 

21 

1.161 

34 

1.126 

47 

1.237 

9 

1.197 

22 

1.159 

35 

1.123 

48 

1.234 

10 

1.194 

23 

1.156 

36 

1.120 

49 

1.231 

11 

1.191 

24 

1.153 

37 

1.118 

50 

1.228 

12 

1.188 

25 

1.150 

38 

*  Loc.  cit.-  (Hoffmann),  p.  224. 


THE     FOLLOWING    ARE    THE 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITIES    OF    OFFICIAL 
LIQUIDS, 

(B.  P.  =  British  Pharmacy.    U.  S.  P.  =  United  States  Pharmacy.) 

ATTFIELD. 
NAME.  SP.  GR. 

Acid,  Acetic,  B.  P 1.044 

U.  S.  P 1.047 

diluted,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 1.006 

Glacial 1.065—1.066 

«    Carbolic 1.065 

"    Hydriodic,  diluted 1.112 

"    Hydrochloric,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 1.160 

diluted,  B.  P 1.052 

««  "  U.  S.  P..  ....     1.038 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  233 

NAME.  gp.  GB. 

Acid,  Hydrocyanic,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 997 

"    Lactic,  U.  S.  P 1.212 

"    Nitric,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 1.420 

"      diluted,  B.  P. . 1.101 

"       U.S.  P 1,068 

"    Nitrohydrochloric 1.074 

"    Phosphoric,  diluted,  B.  P 1.080 

"  "  "        U.  S.  P 1.056 

"    Sulphuric,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 1.843 

«  "          aromatic 927 

diluted,  B.  P 1 .094 

«  "  «        U.  S.  P 1.082 

"     Sulphurous,  solution  of,  B.  P 1.040 

U.  S.  P 1.035 

Alcohol,  U.  S.  P 835 

«        absolute 795 

(rectified  spirit,  84%) 838 

"        (proof  spirit,  49%) 920 

"        dilutum,  U.  S.  P 941 

fortius,  U.  S.  P 817 

"        Amylic,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 818 

Ammonia,  aromatic  spirit  of,  B.  P 870 

stronger  water  of,  U.  S.  P 900 

"          solution  of,  B.  P 959 

"          strong  solution  of,  B.  P 891 

Antimony,  solution  of  Chloride  of ,  B.  P 1.470 

Arsenic,  Hydrochloric  solutions  of,  B.  P 1.009 

Arsenical  Solution  (Liquor  Arsenicalis),  B.  P 1.009 

Benzol,  B.  P 85Q 

Bismuth  and  Ammonia,  solution  of  Citrate  of ,  B.  P 1.122 

Bromine 2.966 

Chlorine,  solution  of,  B.  P 1.003 

Chloroform,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 1.490 

Spirit  of,  B.  P 871 

Cinchonia,  liquid  extract  Yellow,  B.  P.  about 1.100 

Creasote,  B.  P 1.071 

U.  S.  P 1.046 

Ether,  B.  P.. 735 

"       U.  S.  P 750 

"       pure  B.  P 720 

"       fortior,  U.  S.  P 728 

Glycerine,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 1.250 

Iron,  solution  of  Pernitrate  of ,  B.  P 1.107 

U.S.  P..  1.065- 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

NAME.  SP.  Gn. 

Iron,  solution  of  Persulphate  of,  B.  P 1.441 

«           «                       "              U.  S.  P 1.320 

"     strong  solution  of  Perchloride  of,  B.  P 1.338 

«      tincture  of  Perchloride  of,  B.  P.  and  U.  S.  P 992 

Lead,  solution  of  Sub-acetate  of,  B.  P 1.260 

U.  S.  P 1.267 

Lime,  Saccharated  solution  of,  B.  P 1.052 

solution  Chlorinated,  B.  P 1.035 

Mercury  (at  0°  C.  =  32°  F.) 13.596 

(at  15°.55  C.  =  60°  F.) 13.560 

"        acid  solution  of  Nitrate  of 2.246 

U.  S.  P 2.165 

Nitre,  Sweet  Spirit  of 845 

U.  S.  P 837 

Oil  of  Mustard,  B.  P 1.015 

Potash,  solution  of,  B.  P 1.058 

U.  S.  P 1.065 

Soda,  solution  of,  B.  P 1.047 

U.S.P 1.071 

Chlorinated,  B.  P 1.103 

U.S.P 1.045 

Squill,  Oxymel  of,  B.  P 1.320 

Syrup,  B.  P 1.330 

"      U.S.P 1.317 

"      of  Buckthorn,  B.  P 1.320 

"      of  Ginger 

"      of  Hemidesmus 1.335 

"      of  Iodide  of  Iron,  B.  P 1.385 

"      of  Lemon,  B.  P 1.340 

«      of  Mulberries,  B.  P 1.330 

«      of  Orange  Flower,  B.  P 1.330 

"       Peel,  B.  P 

"      of  Phosphate  of  Iron,  B.  P 

"      of  Poppies,  B.  P 1.320 

"      of  Red  Poppy,  B.  P 1.330 

"      of  Red  Roses,  B.  P 1.335 

"      of  Rhubarb,  B.  P 

"      of  Senna,  B.  P 1.310 

"       of  Squill,  B.  P 

"      ofTolu,  B.  P 1.330 

Treacle,  B.  P about  1.400 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


235 


TABLE   OF   SPECIFIC   GRAVITIES  AND   WEIGHTS 
(TRAUTWINE.) 

In  this  Table  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  Gases  and.  Air  are  compared,  with  that 
of  Water,  instead  of  that  of  Air. 


NAMES  OP  SUBSTANCES. 


AVERAGE 
SP.  GR. 


AVER.  WT. 
OF  A  cu.  FT. 

IN  LBS. 


Air,  atmospheric ;  at  60°  F.,  and  under  pressure  of 
one  atmosphere,  14.7  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch,  weighs  ¥^ 

part  as  much  as  water  at  60° 

Alcohol  pure 

"       of  commerce. 

' '       proof  spirit  ....•••• 

Ash,  perfectly  dry 

1000  ft.  board-measure  weighs  1.748  tons. 

Ash,  American  white,  dry average 

1000  feet  board-measure  weighs,  1.414  tons. 

Aluminum 

Antimony,  cast,  6.66  to  6.74  . average 

"          native 

Anthracite,  1.3  to  1.84  ;  of  Penn.,  1.3  to  1.7,  usually 
A  cubic  yard  of  anthracite  averages  1.75  cu.  yards 
when  broken  to  any  market  size,  and  loose. 

Anthracite,  broken  of  any  size,  loose average 

"  "       moderately  shaken " 

heaped  bushel,  loose,  77  to  83  pounds. . . 
A  ton  loose  averages  from  40  to  43  cu.  ft. ;  at  54 
Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  a  cubic  yard  weighs  .651  ton. 

Asphaltum,  1  to  1.8 average 

Bismuth,  cast ;  also  native " 

Brass  (copper  and  zinc),  7.8  to  8.4 " 

"      rolled " 

Bronze  (Cu  8  parts  +  Sn  1  part),  gun  metal,  8.4 — 8.6 

Brick,  pressed 

"       common  hard 

"       soft  inferior 

Brick-work.     (See  Masonry.) 

Calcite,  transparent,  2.52-2.73 average 

Carbonic  anhydride  gas  is  1|  times  as  heavy  as  air. . 

Charcoals  of  pines  and  oaks average 

Chalk,  2.2  to  2.8 " 

Clay,  potter's  dry,  1.8  to  2.1 

"      dry  in  lump,  loose " 

Coke,  loose,  of  good  coal " 

"      a  heaped  bushel,  loose,  35  to  42  Ibs. 
"      a  ton  occupies  80  to  90  cubic  feet. 
In  coking,  coal  swells  from  25  to  50  per  cent. 
Equal  weights  of  coke  and  coal  evaporate  about 
equal  weight  of  water ;  and   each  about  twice 
as  much  as  equal  weights  of  dry  wood. 

Cherry,  perfectly  dry average 

1000  feet  board-measure  weighs  1.562  tons. 


.00123 

.793 

.834 

.916 

.752 


.61 

2.6 
6.70 
6.67 
1.5 


1.4 

9.74 
8.1 

8.4 
8.5 


2.62 

.00187 

2.5 
1.9 


.672 


.0765 
49.43 
52.1 
57.2 
47. 


162. 
418. 
416. 
93.5 


52  to  56 
56  to  60 


87.3 
607. 
504. 
524. 
529. 
150. 
125. 
100. 

164. 

15  to  30 
156. 
119. 
63. 
23  to  32 


42. 


236 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NAMES  or  SUBSTANCES. 

AVERAGE 
SP.  GB. 

AVER.  WT. 

OF  A  CU.  FT. 
INXBS. 

Coal  bituminous  1  2  to  1  5       .                        average 

1  3*» 

84 

"             "        broken  of  any  size,  loose  average 
"                "          Tnodfiratply  pha.'kpn   ,     ,  ,  ,              " 

47  to  52 
51  tn  *\f\ 

"             "a  heaped  bushel,  loose,  70  to  78  Ibs. 
"             "        a  ton  occupies  43  to  48  cubic  feet. 
A  cubic  yard,  solid,  averages  about  1.75  yards  when 
broken  to  any  market  size,  and  loose. 
Chestnut,  perfectly  dry  average 

66 

41 

1000  feet  board  -measure,  weighs  1.525  tons. 
Cement,  hydraulic,   American,  Rosendale;    ground, 

60 

Copper   cast,  8.6  to  8.8  " 

87 

542 

rolled,  8.7  to  8.9  

88 

548 

Cork  

25 

156 

Diamond  3  44  to  3  55  •  usually  3  51  to  3.55 

353 

Earth   common  loam,  perfectly  dry  loose. 

72  to  80 

"       slightly  moist,  loose  

70  to  76 

"       common  loam  as  a  soft-  flowing  mud  

104  to  112 

"            "                                                 "    pressed  in 
a  box     

110  to  120 

Ether    

716 

44  6 

Elm   perfectly  dry  average 

56 

35 

1000  feet  board  -measure  weighs  1.302  tons. 
Ebony   dry  ....        average 

122 

76  1 

Emerald  2  67  to  2.73  " 

27 

Fat  " 

93 

58 

Flint  " 

26 

162 

Feldspar  2  4  to  2.6      .      .      " 

25 

156 

Garnet    3.5  to  4  3  ;  precious  4.1  to  4  3.  .        .      •' 

42 

Glass  2.5  to  3.45  " 

298 

186 

"       common  window         .        .                            " 

252 

157 

"      Millville   N  J  ,  thick-flooring              .      " 

253 

158 

Granite  2.62  to  2.76  " 

269 

168 

Gypsum  (plaster  of  paris),  2.26  to  2.35  " 

Gravel,  about  the  same  as  sand.     (See.) 
Gold  cast  pure  24  carat      .  .                                 " 

19258 

1204 

"     native  pure,  19  3  to  19  4  " 

1932 

1206 

195 

1217 

Guttfi-percha                                                             " 

98 

61  1 

Hornblende   black  3  1  to  3  4  ....         .  .             " 

325 

203 

Hydrogen  gas  is  14|  times  lighter  than  air  ;  16  times 
lighter  than  oxygen  

00527 

Hemlock  perfectly  dry                                      average 

4 

25 

1000  feet  board-measure  weighs  .930  tons. 
Hickory  perfectly  dry          .                             average 

85 

53 

1000  feet  board-measure  weighs  1.971  tons. 
Iron   cast  6  9  to  7  4  average 

7.15 

446 

"      *'      usually  assumed  at                                " 

721 

450 

At  450  Ibs.,  a  cubic  inch  weighs  .2604  Ibs.  ;  8601.6 
cubic  inches  a  ton;  and  a  Ib.  =  3.8400   cubic 
inches. 
Iron,  wrought,  7.6  to  7.9  ;  the  purest  has  the  great- 
est SDecific  erravitv.  .                                    .  .average 

7.77 

485. 

THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


237 


NAMES  OF  SUBSTANCES. 


Iron,  large  rolled  bars average 

"        "          "        "     usually  assumed  at ... 

"     sheet " 

At  480  Ibs.,  a  cubic  inch  weighs  .2778  Ibs. ;  and  a 
lb.= 3.6000  cu.  in.    Light  iron  indicates  impurity. 

Ivory -average 

Ice 

India-rubber t 

Lard 

Lead,  11.35  to  11.47 

Limestone  and  Marbles,  2.65  to  2.85 

Lime,  Quick 

Lime,    Quick,    ground,    loose,    per    struck  bushel, 

71  Ibs average 

Mahogany,  Spanish,  dry* 

"  Honduras,  dry " 

Masonry    of    Granite   or    Limestone,   well   dressed 

throughout average 

Masonry  of  Granite,  roughly  scabbled,  mortar  rub- 
ble  . average 

Masonry  of    Granite,    roughly   scabbled,   dry   rub- 
ble   average 

At  155  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  a  cu.  yd.  weighs  1.868  tons ; 

and  14.45  cu.  ft.  =  1  ton. 
Masonry  of  Sandstone  about  |  part  less  than  the 

foregoing. 
Masonry  of  Brickwork,  pressed  brick,  fine  joint,  aver. 

"          "  "          medium  quality " 

"          "  "          coarse  inferior " 

At  125  Ibs.  per  cii.  ft.,  a  cu.  yd.  weighs  1.507  tons  ; 
and  17.92  cu.  ft.  =  1  ton. 

Mercury,  at  32°  Fah 

at  60°  Fah 

at  212°  Fah 

Mica,  2.75  to  3.1 average 

Mortar,  hardened,  1.4  to  1.9 " 

Mud,  dry,  close 

"      wet,  moderately  pressed 

"      wet,  fluid 

Naphtha 

Nitrogen  Gas  is  ^  part  lighter  than  air 

Oak,  Live,  perfectly  dry,  .88  to  1.02 average 

"     White,    "  "     .78  to    .88.........      " 

"     Red,  Black,  &c " 

Oils,  Whale,  Olive " 

"      of  Turpentine " 

Oxygen  Gas,  a  little  more  than  T^  part  heavier  than  air 

Petroleum 

Peat,  dry,  unpressed 

Pine,  White,  perfectly  dry,  .35  to  45 

1000  ft.  board-measure  weighs  .930  ton. 

Pine,  Yellow,  Northern,  .48  to  .62 

1000  ft.  board -measure  weighs  1.276  tons. 


AVERAGE 
SP.  GR. 


7.6 
7.69 


1.82 

.94 

.93 

.95 

11.41 

2.75 

1.60 


.85 
.56 


13.62 

13.58 

13.38 

2.93 

1.65 


.848 

.95 
.83 

.92 

.87 

.00136 

.878 

.40 
.55 


AVER.  WT. 
OF  A  cu  FT. 

IN  LBS. 


474 
480 
485 


114 

58.7 

58 

59.3 
711 
172 
100 

57 
53 
35 

165 
138 
125 


140 
125 
100 


849 
846 
836 
183 
103 

80  to  110 

110  to  130 

104  to  120 

52.9 

.0744 
59.3 
518 

32  to  45 
57.3 
543 

.0846 
54.8 

20  to  30 
25 

34.3 


Green  timbers  usually  weigh  from  ^  to  nearly  •§•  more  than  dry. 


238 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NAMES  OF  SUBSTANCES. 


AVERAGE 
SP.  GB. 


AVER.  WT. 
or  A  cu.  FT. 

IK  LBS. 


Pine,  Yellow,  Southern,  .64  to  .80 

1000  ft.  board-measure  weighs  1.674  tons. 

Pitch 

Plaster  of  Paris ;  see  Gypsum. 

Platinum,  21  to  22 

"          native,  in  grains,  16  to  19 

Quartz,  common,  pure,  2.64  to  2.67 

"  "         finely  pulverized,  loose 

Ruby  and  Sapphire,  3.91  to  4.16 

Salt,  coarse,  per  struck  bu.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  56  Ibs. 

"      Liverpool,  fine,  for  table  use,  60  to  62  Ibs 

Sand,   of  pure   quartz,   perfectly  dried   and   loose, 

usually  112  to  133  Ibs.  per  struck  bushel 

1  measure  of  solid  quartz  makes  1.75  measures  of 

loose,  rounded  sand. 
Sand  well  shaken,  123  to  147  Ibs.  per  struck  bushel. 

"    packed 

At  130  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  perfectly  wet,  17.23  cu.  ft. 

weigh  1  ton  ;  and  a  cu.  yd.  =  1.567  tons. 
Extremely  fine,  even-grained  sand,  perfectly  dry, 
may  weigh  as  little  as  70  to  80  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft. 

Sandstone,  fit  for  building,  dry,  2.1  to  2.73 

Snow,  fresh  fallen .    

"       moistened  and  compacted  by  rain 

Sycamore,  perfectly  dry 

1000  ft.  board-measure  weighs  1.376  tons. 

Slate,  2.7  to  2.9 average 

Silver 

Soapstone  or  Steatite,  2.65  to  2.8 " 

Steel,  7.8  to  7.9 " 

The  heaviest  contains  least  carbon. 

Sulphur " 

Spruce,  perfectly  dry " 

1000  ft.  board-measure  weighs  .930  ton. 

Spelter  or  Zinc,  6.8  to  7.2 " 

Tallow " 

Tar " 

Topaz " 

Tin,  cast,  7.2  to  7.5 " 

Turf  or  Peat,  dry,  unpressed 

Water,  pure  rain,  or  distilled,  at  32°  F.,  barom.  30  in. 

60°  F.,      " 
80°  F.,      " 

Sea,  1.026  to  1.030 average 

Although  the  weight  of  fresh  water  is  almost  in- 
variably assumed  as  62^  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  yet  62^ 
would  be  nearer  the  truth,  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures of  about  70°  ;  or  a  Ib.  =  27.759  cu.  in. ; 
and  a  cu.  in.  =  .5764  oz.  Avoir.,  or  .4323  oz.  Troy, 
or  252.175  grains.  The  grain  is  the  same  in 
Troy,  Avoirdupois,  and  Apothecaries'  weights. 

Wax,  Bees average 

Wines,  .993  to  1.04 " 

Walnut,  Black,  perfectly  dry " 

Zinc  or  Spelter,  6.8  to  7.2 " 

Zircon,  4.5  to  4.75 " 


.72 
1.15 

21.5 
17.5 
2.65 

4.04 


2.65 


2.41 


.59 

2.6 
10.5 
2.73 

7.85 

2 
.4 

7 

.94 
1 

3.55 
7.35 


1 

1.028 


.97 

.99* 

.61 

7.00 

4.62 


45 

71.7 
1342 

165 

90 

45 
49 

90  to  106 


99  to  117 
101  to  119 


150 

5  to  12 
15  to  50 

37 

162 
655 
170 
490 

125 
25 

437.5 
58.6 
62.4 

459 

20  to  30 
62.375 
62.331 
62.190 
64.08 


60.5 
62.3 

38 
437.5 


MINERALOGY.* 

It  is  my  object  under  this  division  to  consider  only  those 
minerals  which  have  found  more  or  less  use  in  the  arts. 
Ores  of  the  following  elements  will  be  considered : 


1.  ALUMINIUM. 

2.  ANTIMONY. 

3.  ARSENIC. 

4.  BISMUTH. 

5.  CADMIUM. 

6.  CALCIUM. 

7.  CARBON. 

8.  CHROMIUM. 

9.  COBALT. 

10.  COPPER. 

11.  GOLD. 

12.  IRIDIUM. 

13.  IRON. 

14.  LEAD. 

15.  LITHIUM. 


16.  MAGNESIUM. 

17.  MANGANESE. 

18.  MERCURY. 

19.  NICKEL. 

20.  PHOSPHORUS. 

21.  PLATINUM. 

22.  POTASSIUM. 

23.  SILICON. 

24.  SILVER. 

25.  SODIUM. 

26.  STRONTIUM. 

27.  SULPHUR. 

28.  TIN. 

29.  ZINC. 

30.  ZIRCONIUM. 


*  See  Author's  Preface. 


16 


242 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


.,  ALUMINIUM. 

The  principal  Aluminium  minerals  are : 


MINEBAL. 

HABDNESS. 

SP.  GB. 

FOBMTJLA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Corim  d.  inn 

9 

3  909—4  16 

Al 

Ai  —  53  4 

Diaspore  

6.5—7 

3.3—3.5 

A1H 

A12O3  —  85  1 

Aluminite 

1—2 

1.66 

Al  S  +  9H 

Al^Og  —  29  8 

Alunogen  

1.5—2 

1.6-1.8 

Al  Ss  18H 

A12O3  —  15.4 

Alunite      

3.5—4 

2.58—2.752 

K  S  +  3  Al  S  +  6H 

A12O3  —  37.13 

Ivnlinitc 

2—25 

1.75 

KS  +  A1S3+24H 

A1S  —  184 

2.5 

2.9-3 

3Na  P  +  A1.,F3 

Al-  13 

Turquois      

6 

2.6—3.83 

Alo  £'  +  H 

AUO3  -  46.9 

Wavellite  

325  —  4 

2337 

A13  P2  +  12H 

A12O3  —  37.3 

Chrysoberyl  

8.5 

3.5_3.84 

BeAl 

A12O3  =  80.2 

CORUNDUM. 

Syn. — Corindon,  Sapphire,  Euby,  Oriental  Amethyst, 
Smirgel,  Emery.  Color  is  red,  blue,  purple,  yellow,  brown, 
gray  and  white.  Streak,  colorless.  Transparent,  translucent 
to  opaque.  Lustre  vitreous,  sometimes  pearly  on  the  base, 
and  occasionally  showing  a  bright  opalescent  star  of  six  rays 
in  the  direction  of  the  axis.  Crystallizes  in  a  rhombohedron 
of  86°4:'.  Sp.  Gr.,  3.909-416. 

The  different  varieties  of  corundum  are  much  used  in  the 
arts.  Large  crystals  of  sapphire  have  been  found  at  New- 
town,  "N.  J.  Imperfect  rubies  have  been  found  at  Warwick, 
N.  J.,  and  bluish  crystals  in  Delaware  and  Chester  Co.,  Penn- 
sylvania. In  California,  in  Los  Angeles  Co.,  in  the  drift  of 
San  Fransisqueto  Pass.  In  Canada,  at  Burgess,  red  and  blue 
crystals  have  been  found. 

Red  sapphire  is  the  most  highly  esteemed.  A  crystal 
weighing  four  carats,  perfect  in  transparency  and  color,  has 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


243 


been  valued  at  half  the  price  of  a  diamond  of  the  same  size. 
Corundum,  under  certain  conditions,  absorbs  water  and  changes 
to  diaspore,  and  perhaps  also  to  the  mica-like  mineral,  marga- 
rite  (Dana).  Corundum  may  be  found  artificially  by  exposing 
to  a  high  heat,  4  pts.  of  borax  and  1  of  alumina  (Ebelmen) ; 
by  decomposing  potash  alum  by  charcoal  (Gaudin) ;  by  subject- 
ing in  a  carbon  vessel  fluoride  of  aluminum  to  the  action  of 
boric  acid,  the  process  yielding  large  rhombohedral  plates 
(Deville  and  Caron);  by  the  addition  to  the  last  chromic 
fluoride,  affording  the  red  sapphire  or  ruby,  or  with  less  of  the 
chromic  fluoride,  blue  sapphire,  or  with  much  of  this  chromic 
fluoride,  a  fine  green  kind,  by  action  of  alurninic  chloride  on 
lime  (Daubree). 

The  following  are  elaborate  analyses  by  J.  Lawrence  Smith, 
taken  from  elaborate  papers  in  the  Am.  J.  Sci.,  II,  x,  354, 
xi,  53,  xlii,  83.  The  column  of  hardness  gives  the  effective 
abrasive  power  of  the  powdered  mineral,  that  of  sapphire 
being  as  100 : 


HABDKESS. 

SP.  GK. 

£L. 

MAGNE- 
TITE. 

CA. 

Si. 

H. 

1.  Sapphire,  India  

100 

4.06 

97.51 

1.89 



0.80 

—  =100.20 

2.  Ruby,            "     

90 

— 

97.32 

1.09 

— 

1.21 

—  =  99.62 

3.  Corundum,  Asia  Minor. 

77 

3.88 

92.39 

1.67 

1.12 

2.05 

1.60  =  98.83 

4.          "         India  

58 

3.89 

93.12 

0.91 

1.02 

0.96 

2.86  =  98.87 

5.  Emery,  Kulah  

57 

4.28 

6350 

...   (3325 

092 

1  61 

1  90  —101  18 

6.       "       Chester 

33 

4401 

•MS 

3  13 

2  00  —  99  35 

CRYOLITE. 

This  mineral  is  only  found  in  Greenland,  and  has  a  very 
extensive  use  in  the  arts  (Formula,  3NaF.Al2F3).  Its  compo- 
sition is  Al  13.0,  Na  32.8,  Fl  54.0.  Sp.  Gr.  2.9-3. 

"  It  crystallizes  as  a  doubly  oblique  rhombic  prism  88°  30', 
and  has  a  perfect  basal  cleavage.  Its  lustre  is  vitreous  or 
slightly  pearly,  and  is  nearly  the  same  on  the  three  cleavages 
on  the  crystal.  Its  fracture  is  lamellar  or  scaly.  It  is  gener- 
ally white,  and  has  about  the  same  kind  of  lustre  as  a  stearine 


244: 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


candle  on  the  fracture.  It  is  sometimes  colored  slightly  red, 
or  may  be  even  brick  red,  when  it  is  mixed  with  partially 
altered  siderite.  Occasionally  it  is  black." 

Heated  in  an  open  tube,  it  gives  up  H  Fl.  Soluble  in  sul- 
phuric acid,  giving  off  MF1.  It  is  easily  fusible,  even  in  the 
flame  of  a  candle,  without  the  aid  of  the  blowpipe.  If  it  is 
then  thrown  into  water,  there  seems  to  be  a  commencement 
of  decomposition,  for  an  alkaline  carbonate  or  lime-water 
throws  down  Al?  Cryolite  is  shipped  in  large  quantities  to 
Europe  and  the  United  States  (Pennsylvania),  where  it  is  used 
for  making  soda,  and  soda  and  alumina  salts ;  also  of  late  in 
Pennsylvania,  for  the  manufacture  of  a  white  glass  which  is  a 
very  good  imitation  of  porcelain. 

2.  ANTIMONY. 

The  principal  Antimony  minerals  are  : 


MlNEBALS. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GK. 

FOBMTJIiA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Native  Antimony 

3.35 

6.646—6.72 

Sb  (when  pure). 

Sb  =  100 

Senarmonite  .... 

2—2.5 

5.22—5.3 

Sb 

Sb  =    83.56 

Valentinite  

2.5—3 

5.566 

Sb 

Sb  =    83.56 

Stibnite  

2 

4.516—4.612 

Sb2S3 

Sb  =    71.8 

Kermesite  

1—1.5 

45_4.6 

Sb  +  2SbS3 

Sb  —    75  3 

NATIVE   ANTIMONY. 

Crystallizes  in  rhombohedra  of  87°  35'  (Rose).  Lustre  is 
metallic.  Color  and  streak  is  tin-white.  It  is  very  brittle. 
It  contains  sometimes  silver,  iron  or  arsenic  as  impurities. 
Composition  of  a  specimen  from  Andreasberg  gave,  according 
to  Klaproth,  antimony  98,  silver  1,  iron  0.25  =  99.25. 

The  mineral  allemontite  has  the  following  composition 
(SbAs3)  =  arsenic  65.22,  antimony  34.78.  Analysis  by  Rarn- 
melsberg  of  the  Allemont  ore :  arsenic  62.15,  antimony  37.85= 
100  given  ISb  to  26As. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  245 

Antimony  has  been  found  native  in  the  Harz,  in  Mexico ; 
Huasco,  Chili ;  South  Ham,  Canada ;  at  Warren,  N.  J. 

Allernontite  occurs  sparingly  at  Allemont,  Przibram  in 
Bohemia ;  Schladmig  in  Styria,  and  in  the  Harz. 

STIBNITE. 

Stibnite,  or  gray  antimony,  furnishes  the  antimony  of  com- 
merce, and  is  therefore  the  principal  ore.  Sometimes  the 
oxides  senarmontite  and  valentinite  are  found  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  be  mined.  Stibnite  is  orthorhombic.  Hardness 
=  2.  Sp.  Gr.  =  4.516  (Haiiy);  4.62  (Mobs).  It  is  a  lead- 
gray  ore,  usually  fibrous  or  in  prismatic  crystals ;  it  has  a  me- 
tallic lustre  which  is  often  bright.  Streak  is  same  as  color, 
lead-gray. 

Composition,  Sb2S3  =  sulphur  28.2,  antimony  71.8  =  100 
when  pure.  Eight  analyses  of  stibnite  from  Arnsberg,  West- 
phalia, gave  Schneider  a  mean  of  Sb  71.48,  S  28.52,  excluding 
0.33  per  cent  of  quartz. 

It  fuses  without  the  aid  of  a  blowpipe.  On  charcoal  it 
fuses,  giving  off  sulphurous  and  antimonious  fumes.  On  char- 
coal, in  R.  F.,  it  gives  antimony  coat,  and  colors  the  flame  green- 
ish-blue. 

Occurs  with  spathic  iron  in  beds,  but  generally  in  veins. 
Often  associated  with  blende,  heavy  spar  and  quartz.  It  is  met 
in  veins  at  Wolfsberg  in  the  Harz ;  abundant  near  Padstow 
and  Jiutagel ;  abundant  also  at  Borneo.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  found  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Maryland ;  abun- 
dant in  the  granitic  range,  south  side  of  Tulare  valley,  near 
pass  of  San  Amedio.  Specimens  found  in  Nevada  are  usually 
argentiferous  (Humboldt  mining  region).  It  is  also  found  in 
New  Brunswick. 

As  stated  above,  this  ore  affords  nearly  all  the  antimony  of 
commerce.  "  The  crude  antimony  of  the  shops  is  obtained  by 
simple  fusion,  which  separates  the  accompanying  rock.  From 
this  product  most  of  the  pharmaceutical  preparations  of  anti- 
mony are  made,  and  the  pure  metal  extracted."  "  This  ore 


246 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


was  used  by  the  ancients  for  coloring  the  hair,  eyebrows,  etc., 
to  increase  the  apparent  size  of  the  eye."  The  ore  changes  on 
exposure  by  partial  oxidation  to  antimony  blend*  (2Sb2S3  + 
Sb203),  and  by  further  oxidation  to  valentinite  (Sb203) .  Anti- 
mony ochre  (Sb203  +  Sb205),  and  also  Sb205  +  5H  are  other 
results  of  alteration  (Dana). 

3.  ARSENIC. 

The  principal  Arsenic  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

COMPOSITION. 

PEE  CENT 
WHEN  PURE. 

Native  Arsenic     

3.5 

593 

As 

As  —  100 

Arsenolite 

1  5 

3698 

As 

As  —    75  76 

1.5—2 

3.4—3.6 

AsS 

As  —    70.1 

Orpiment   

1.5—2 

3.48 

As0S3 

As  —    61 

NATIVE  ARSENIC. 

Native  arsenic  is  one  source  of  arsenic,  but  it  is  too  rare  to 
amount  to  much.  It  is  found  in  veins  in  crystalline  rocks, 
and  in  older  schists,  and  is  generally  accompanied  by  other 
ores.  It  crystallizes  as  a  rhombohedron  of  85°  41'.  Hardness 
=  3.5.  Sp.  Gr.  5.93.  When  pure,  is  composed  only  of  arsenic ; 
but  it  generally  contains  some  antimony,  and  traces  of  iron, 
silver,  gold  or  bismuth.  The  arsenical  bismuth  of  Werner  is 
arsenic  containing  3  per  cent,  of  bismuth  (Hardness  =  2.  Gr.  = 
5.36-5.39).  An  antimonial  arsenic,  containing,  according  to 
Schultz,  7.97  per  cent,  of  antimony,  occurs  at  the  Palmbaure 
mine,  near  Marienberg,  Saxony.  A  similar  compound,  con- 
sisting, according  to  Genth,  of  arsenic  90.82  and  antimony  9.18 
(=  17As-j-lSb),  occurs  at  Washoe  Co.,  California. 

Native  arsenic  gives  metallic  arsenic  in  a  closed,  and  As  in 
an  open  tube.  In  the  R.  F.  it  volatilizes  without  residue  and 
without  melting,  coloring  the  flame  blue.  It  is  not  attacked 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  247 

by  HC1,  but  is  soluble  in  HN03.  It  is  found  in  considerable 
quantity  in  the  silver  mines  at  Freiberg,  Annaberg,  Marien- 
berg  and  Schneeberg.  Abundant  at  Chauarcillo  and  else- 
where in  Chili.  In  the  United  States,  it  has  been  observed 
by  Jackson  at  Haverhill,  N.  H.,  in  thin  layers  in  dark-blue 
mica  slate,  stained  by  plumbago,  and  containing  also  white 
and  magnetic  pyrites ;  found  also  at  Jackson,  N.  H.,  and  on 
the  east  flank  of  Furlong  Mountain,  Greenwood,  Me. 

REALGAR. 

Realgar  has  the  following  composition  when  pure:  sul- 
phur 29.9,  arsenic  70.1  =  100  (AsS).  A  specimen  from  Spain 
gave  S  30.00,  As  70.25  (Hugo  Miller,  J.  Ch.  Soc.,  xi,  242). 
Hardness  —  1.5-2.  Sp.  Gr.=  3.4-3.6.  Lustre  resinous.  Color 
is  bright-red  and  vitreous.  Streak  red  when  not  decomposed, 
but  generally  orange-yellow. 

In  closed  tube,  it  fuses  and  volatilizes  without  decompo- 
sition ;  in  open  tube  gives  sulphurous  fumes  and  a  white  crys- 
talline sublimate  of  arsenious  acid.  Soluble  in  caustic  alkalies. 

Realgar  crystallizes  as  an  inclined  rhombic  prism  74°  26'. 
It  is  always  crystallized  or  crystalline.  It  is  found  in  the 
Harz;  at  Tajowa  in  Hungary  in  beds  of  clay,  and  at  Bumen- 
thal,  Switzerland,  in  dolomite. 

ORPIMENT. 

Formula  As2S3  =  sulphur  39,  arsenic  61  =  100.  Hardness  = 
1.5-2.  Sp.  Gr.  =  3.48(Hoidinger);  3.4  (Breithaupt).  Its  color 
is  decided  lemon-yellow;  sometimes  slightly  orange-colored, 
owing  to  admixture  of  realgar.  Streak  is  yellow — generally 
a  little  paler  than  color.  Lustre  pearly  upon  the  faces  of 
perfect  cleavage  ;  elsewhere  resinous. 

In  a  close  tube  it  fuses  and  volatilizes,  giving  a  dark-yellow 
sublimate;  acts  otherwise  like  realgar.  Dissolves  in  nitro- 
hydrochloric  acid  and  caustic  alkalies. 

Orpiment  crystallizes  as  a  right  rhombic  prism  100°  40'.  It 
is  usually  found  in  foliated  and  fibrous  masses,  and  in  this 


248 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


form  is  found  at  Kapnik  in  Transylvania,  and  at  Felsobauza 
in  Upper  Hungary ;  in  Fohnsdorf,  Styria,  found  in  brown 
coal.  Small  traces  are  met  with  in  Edenville,  Orange  Co., 
!N.  Y.,  on  arsenical  iron. 

The  arsenic  of  commerce  is  mostly  obtained  from  the  arsen- 
ical ores  of  iron,  cobalt  and  nickel,  which  see. 

4,   BISMUTH. 

The  principal  Bismuth  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GB. 

COMPOSITION. 

PER  CENT  OP, 
WHEN  PURE. 

Native  Bismuth.  .  . 
Bismuthinite  

2—2.5 

2 

9.727 

6.4—7.2 

Bi 

Bi2So 

Bi  =  100 
Bi  =    81.25 

Alkinite      .       .  . 

2—2.5 

6.1—6.8 

3(CuPb)S  +  Bi2S3 

Bi  =    36.2 

Tetrad  y  mite  

1.5—2 

7.2—7.9 

Bi2Te3 

Bi  =    51.9 

NATIVE    BISMUTH. 

."Native  bismuth  is  the  source  of  bismuth  in  the  arts.  When 
pure  contains  only  bismuth;  it  generally  contains,  though, 
traces  of  arsenic,  sulphur  and  tellurium.  A  specimen  analyzed 
by  Genth  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  II,  xxvii,  247),  gave  Bi  =  99.914, 
Te  0.042,  Fe  trace  =  99.956.  A  specimen  analyzed  by 
Forbes  (Phil.  Mag.,  IY,  xxix,  3),  gave  Bi  94.46,  Te  5.09, 
As  0.38,  S  0.07,  Au  trace  =  100.00.  Hardness  =  2-2.5.  Sp.  Gr. 
=  9.727.  Color  silver-white,  with  a  reddish  tinge.  Lustre 
metallic.  Opaque.  Streak  same  as  color ;  subject  to  tarnish. 
Sectile.  Brittle  when  cold,  but  when  heated  somewhat  mal- 
leable. It  melts  in  the  flame  of  a  candle.  On  Ch  fuses  and 
is  entirely  volatilized,  leaving  a  yellow  coating.  It  is  not 
attacked  by  HCl.  Fuses  at  476°  F.  Dissolves  in  HN03  ;  sub- 
sequent dilution  causes  a  white  precipitate.  Crystallizes 
readily  from  fusion. 

Bismuth  is  found  native  in  veins  in  gneiss  and  other  crys- 


THE    CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  249 

talline  rocks  and  clay  slate  accompanying  various  ores.  It  is 
most  abundant  at  the  silver  and  cobalt  mines  of  Saxony  and 
Bohemia.  Has  been  found  at  Lane's  mine  in  Monroe,  Conn. ; 
also  at  Brewer's  mines,  Chesterfield  District,  South  Carolina. 

BISMUTH  I NITE. 

Bisthmuthinite  when  pure  has  the  following  composition : 
Bismuth  81.25  +  sulphur  18.75  =  Bi2S3.  When  impure,  it 
may  contain  in  small  quantities,  Fe,  Cu,  Au,  Pb,  Te,  Se.  A 
specimen  (Oravicza)  analyzed  by  Hubert  (Haid.  Ber.  iii,  401) 
gave  Bi  74.55,  S  19.46,  Fe  0.40,  Cu  3.13,  Au,  0.53,  Pb  2.26  = 
100.33.  Hardness  =  2.  Sp.  Gr.  6.4-6.459  ;  7.2  :  7.16  Bo- 
livia (Forbes).  Color  lead-gray  or  tin-white,  with  a  yellowish 
or  iridescent  tarnish.  Streak  same  as  color.  Lustre  metallic. 
Opaque.  Crystallizes  as  a  right  rhombic  prism  91°  30'. 

In  an  open  tube  gives  sulphurous  fumes  and  a  bismuth  sub- 
limate, which  before  the  blowpipe  fuses  into  drops,  brown 
while  hot  and  opaque-yellow  on  cooling.  Fus.  =  1.  Dis- 
solves in  nitric  acid  and  gives  a  precipitate  on  diluting. 

Sometimes  found  massive,  with  a  foliated  or  reticulated 
structure.  Generally  found  associated  with  other  minerals. 
Accompanies  molybdenite  and  apatite  in  quartz  at  Brandy  Gill 
in  Cumberland.  Occurs  with  gold,  pyrite  chalcopyrite  in 
Rowan  Co.,  N.  C.  Found  with  chrysoberyl  at  Haddam,  Ct. 
(according  to  Shepard). 

5.  CADMIUM. 
The  principal  Cadmium  mineral  is 

GREENOCKITE. 

When  pure,  Greenockite  has  the  following  composition : 
Cd  77.7,  S  22.3  =  100  (CdS  or  Cd3S3).  A  sample  analyzed 
by  Connel,  gave  cadmium  77.30  and  sulphur  22.56  =  99.86. 
Hardness  ==  3-3.5.  Sp.  Gr.  =  4.8  (Brooke) ;  4.9-4.999  (Breit- 
haupt)  ;  4.5,  the  artificial  (Sochting). 


250 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


"Lustre  adamantine.  Color  honey-yellow,  citron-yellow, 
orange-yellow,  vein  parallel  with  the  axis,  bronze-yellow. 
Streak-powder  between  orange-yellow  and  brick-red.  Nearly 
transparent.  Strongly  double  refraction."  Not  thermoelectric 
(Breithaupt). 

In  a  closed  tube  assumes  a  carmine-red  color  while  hot, 
fading  to  the  original  yellow  on  cooling. 

In  open  tube  gives  sulphurous  acid.  Gives  reddish -brown 
coating  on  charcoal  in  R.  F.  Soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid 
with  effervescence  of  hydrogen  sulphide. 

Found  at  Bishoptown,  Scotland,  in  short  hexagonal  crystals, 
136°  24'.  Found  at  the  Ueberoth  zinc  mine,  near  Friedens- 
ville,  Lehigh  Co.,  Pa. 

Named  after  Lord  Greenock  (late  Earl  Cathcart). 


6.  CALCIUM. 
The  principal  Calcium  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Anhydrite  

3—3.5 

2.899—2895 

CaS 

Ca  =  41.2;    S*=--58.8 

<*ypsum  

1.5—2 

2.314-3.28 

Ca's  +  2H 

Ca  =  32.6;    8  =  46.5;    H  =  20.9 

Fluorite  

4 

3.01  —3.25 

CaFl 

Ca  =  51.3;    Fl  =  48.7 

Apatite  

4.5-5 

2.92  —3.25 

Ca,'i?+|Ca(Cl,F) 

j  Ca=48.43;  '£=40.92  (=89.35  P',Ca), 
j  Cl=6.81  ;   Ca=8.84  (=10.65  Cl,Ca). 

Pharmacolite. 

2—2.5 

2.64  -2.73 

(t6»|H).ia 

Ca  =  24.9  ;  As  =  51.1  ;  H  =  24 

Aragonite  

3.5-^ 

2.927—2.947 

CaC 

Ca  =  56  ;  C  =  44 

Calcite  

2.5-3.5 

2.508-2.729 

'    Ca  C 

'  Ca  =  56  ;  C  =  44 

Dolomite  

3.5^ 

2.8    —2.9 

Ca  C  +  Mg  C 

Ca  C  =  54.35  ;    Mg  C  =  45.65 

Scheelite  

4.5-5.8 

5.9    —6.076 

CaW 

Ca  =  19.4;    W  =  80.6 

GYPSUM. 

Gypsum  has  the  following  composition  when  pure:  Lime 
32.6,  sulphuric  acid  46.5,  water  20.9  =  100  (CaS  +  2H). 
The  different  varieties  have  the  following  composition : 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


251 


a, 

da. 

H. 

Si. 

AL'FE. 

1    Crystallized    .  . 

44.8 

33.0 

21  0 

—    —    98  8   Bucholz 

2.  Granular  
3   Albay    fibrous 

41.16 
44  19 

33.88 
29.41 

21.0 
20  18 

6.43 

—    =    99.04  Rose. 
0  64  —  100  85  Trobe 

4.  Wicnrode,  compact.  
5   Osterode,         "       

45.76 
45.95 

31.87 
32.62 

19.90 
20.70 

2.80 
042 

0.60  =  100.93  Jiingst. 
0  50  -  100  19       " 

6.         "        white  

46.61 

32.44 

20.74 

0.15 

—    —    99.94  Hampe 

7.         "        red  

46.50 

31  99 

21  56 

0  45  —  100  SO        " 

Gypsum  takes  the  form  of  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  138°  28', 
and  has  three  cleavages.  Hardness  =  1.5-2.  Sp.  Gr.  =  2.314- 
2.328,  when  pure  crystal.  Massive  varieties  sometimes  glis- 
tening, sometimes  dull  earthy.  It  has  a  vitreous  lustre  which, 
on  some  of  the  faces,  may  be  adamantine. 

Its  colors  are  very  variable, .  generally  not  very  strong. 
The  color  is  usually  white,  although  it  may  be  gray,  flesh-red, 
honey-yellow,  ochre-yellow,  and  blue;  impure  varieties  are 
often  black,  brown,  red,  or  reddish-brown.  It  often  has  Fe 
interposed  when  it  is  red.  Streak  is  white.  It  is  often  trans- 
parent or  translucent. 

Heat  immediately  expels  the  water  from  gypsum,  and  leaves 
it  white.  It  then  fuses  at  2.5  to  3,  coloring  the  flame  reddish- 
yellow.  On  charcoal  in  R.  F.  it  is  reduced  to  sulphide.  If 
not  ignited  above  260°  C.,  it  will  unite  with  water  if  moistened, 
and  becomes  firmly  solid.  Soluble  in  muriatic  acid  and  in 
400  to  500  parts  of  water. 

Gypsum  often  forms  extensive  beds  in  connection  with 
stratified  rocks,  especially  limestones  and  marlites  or  clay- 
beds.  Frne  specimens  of  gypsum  are  found  at  Bex  in  Swit- 
zerland ;  large  cuticular  crystals  have  been  found  at  Mont- 
martre  near  Paris.  A  noted  locality  of  alabaster  occurs  at 
Castellina,  35  miles  from  Leghorn,  whence  it  is  taken  to 
Florence  for  manufacture  of  vases,  figures,  etc.  This  species 
occurs  in  extensive  beds  in  several  of  the  United  States,  more 
particularly  ISTew  York,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
and  Arkansas,  and  is  usually  associated  with  salt  springs. 


252  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Also  in  Nova  Scotia,  Peru,  etc.  Handsome  selenite  and 
snowy  gypsum  occurs  near  Lockport,  N.  Y.  Large-grouped 
crystals  are  found  on  the  St.  Mary's  in  clay  in  Maryland. 
Large  beds  of  gypsum  are  found  with  rock  salt  in  Washington 
Co.,  Virginia.  Selenite  and  alabaster  are  found  in  Davidson 
Co.,  Tenn.  It  has  the  form  of  rosettes  or  flowers,  vines,  and 
shrubbery  in  Mammoth  Cave,  Ky.  Abundant,  also,  west  of 
the  Mississippi  in  many  places. 

"  Plaster  of  Paris  (or  gypsum  that  has  been  heated  and 
ground  up)  is  used  for  making  moulds,  taking  casts  of  statues, 
medals,  etc.,  for  producing  a  hard  finish  on  walls ;  also  in  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  marble,  as  the  scagliola  tables  of  Leg- 
horn, and  in  glazing  of  porcelain.  The  fibrous  variety,  when 
cut  en  cabochon  and  polished,  resembles  cat's-eye." 

The  Montmartre  gypsum  quarries,  near  Paris,  have  been 
famous  for  affording  brown  gypsum,  which,  on  account  of 
locality,  is  called  Plaster  of  Paris. 

CALCITE. 

Calcite,  when  pure,  is  composed  of  carbonic  acid  44,  and 
lime  56  =  100  (CaC).  A  portion  of  the  lime  of  calcite  is  fre- 
quently replaced  by  Mg,  Fe,  Mn,  Sr,  Ba,  Zn,  Pb.  The  color 
of  calcite  is  usually  white,  but  is  sometimes  yellowish,  gray, 
red,  green,  blue,  violet,  yellow,  browrn,  and  black.  Fe  pro- 
duces different  shades  of  red,  from  flesh-red  or  paler  to  opaque 
blood-red,  and  brownish-red  according  to  the  proportions 
present ;  the  latter,  Hausmann  names  Hoematoconite,  as  in  the 
marble  Rosseautico  of  Italy.  -Fe2^3  causes  yellowish  to  opaque 
ochre-yellow  and  yellowish-brown ;  the  deeper  sideroconite  of 
Hausmann.  Ferrous  oxide,  chromic  oxide  and  ferric  silicate 
cause  shades  of  green. 

When  calcite  is  perfectly  pure,  it  crystallizes  in  rhombohedra 
of  105°  5'.  Hardness  =  2.5-3.5 ;  some  earthy  kinds  (chalk, 
etc).  Sp.  Gr.  =  2.508-2.778 ;  pure  crystals  2.7213-2.7234 
(Beud) ;  fibrous  camellar  and  stalactite  2.70-2.72,  but  when 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  253 

pulverized,  2.729-2.7233.  Streak  is  white  or  grayish.  Lustre 
vitreous,  sub-vitreous,  earthy.  Transparent,  opaque.  Double 
refraction  strong. 

When  heated  in  a  closed  tube  it  sometimes  decrepitates. 
It  is  infusible,  but  gives  a  very  luminous  flame,  coloring  it 
red  (Ca).  It  is  the  same  phenomena,  on  a  small  scale,  that 
is  produced  with  the  Drummond  Light.  When  heated  on 
platinum  foil  with  soda  it  fuses  to  a  clear  mass.  The  C  is 
expelled  by  heat  and  Ca  remains ;  when  this  is  moistened  on 
the  finger  a  sensation  of  heat  is  produced.  It  effervesces  very 
readily  with  acids,  even  in  the  cold. 

Andreasberg,  in  the  Harz,  is  one  of  the  best  European 
localities  of  crystallized  calcite.  In  Iceland,  a  single  rhombo- 
hedron  over  six  yards  long  and  three  high  has  been  observed. 

Crystals  are  found  also  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
in  New  York  in  St.  Lawrence  and  Jefferson  counties,  espe- 
cially at  Rossie  lead-mine ;  one  nearly  transparent  is  in  the 
cabinet  of  Yale  College,  weighing  165  pounds.  In  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey ;  in  Virginia,  stalac- 
tites are  found  of  great  beauty;  also  in  the  large  caves  of 
Kentucky.  At  the  Lake  Superior  copper-mines,  splendid 
crystals  are  found,  containing  scales  of  native  copper. 

CORALS,  of  which  reefs  are  formed,  consist  mainly  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  (CaC). 

B.  Silliman,  Jr.,  obtained  for  a  recent  species  of  madrepora: 
carbonate  of  lime,  94.807;  phosphates,  fluorides,  etc.,  0.745; 
organic  matter,  4.448.  And  the  deposits  of  phosphates  and 
fluorides  afforded  the  percentage,  Si  12.5,  Ca  7.5,  Mg  4.2, 
MgF  26.62,  CaF  26.34,  MgP  8.00,  'A  and  Fe  14.84. 

MARBLE. — Under  this  name  a  number  of  varieties  of  calcite 
are  included,  which  are  sought  after  in  the  arts.  In  fact,  when 
the  granular  limestones  are  compact,  and  are  fit  for  polishing 
or  for  architectural  or  ornamental  use,  they  are  called  marbles. 
The  colors  are  various.  Statuary  Marble  is  pure  white,  fine- 
grained, and  firm  in  texture.  The  Parian  marble,  from  the 


254  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

island  of  Paros,  and  the  Carrara,  of  Modena,  Italy,  are  among 
the  best  statuary  marbles. 

What  is  sought  after  in  marble  is  a  uniform  disposition  of 
the  coloring  material;  these  colors  may  be  uniform  white, 
black,  yellow,  and  red.  Yariegated  marbles  are  also  much 
sought  after.  Marbles  colored  in  veins  of  black  and  white  are 
called  St.  Anne. 

The  Porter,  called  sometimes  Egyptian  marble,  is  of  black 
color,  handsomely  veined  with  yellow  dolomite,  and  comes 
from  Porto-venere,  near  Spezzia.  Marbles  are  not  necessarily 
exclusively  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime ;  thus,  the  marble 
called  verd-cmtique  is  filled  with  veins  of  serpentine  and  talc. 

Shell  Marbles  include  kinds  consisting  largely  of  fossil  shells. 
Madreporic  marble  contains  corals.  Encrinal  contains  cri- 
noidal  remains. 

Ruin  Marble  is  a  kind  of  compact  calcareous  marl,  showing, 
when  polished,  pictures  of  fortifications,  temples,  etc.,  in  ruins, 
due  to  oxide  of  iron. 

Lithographic  Stone  is  a  very  even-grained,  compact  lime- 
stone, usually  of  buff  or  drab  color. 

Breccia  Marble  is  made  of  fragments  of  limestone  cemented 
together.  Colors  are  various. 

Pudding-stone  Marble  consists  of  pebbles  or  rounded  stones 
cemented. 

Hydraulic  limestone  is  an  impure  limestone.  The  French 
varieties  contain  2  or  3  per  cent,  of  magnesia  and  10  "to  20  of 
silica  and  alumina  (clay).  The  varieties  in  the  United  States 
contain  20  to  40  per  cent,  of  magnesia  and  12  to  30  per  cent, 
of  silica  and  alumina.  A  variety  worked  extensively  at  Ron- 
dout,  N.  Y.,  contains,  C02  34.20,  lime  25.50,  magnesia  12.35, 
silica  15.37,  alumina  9.13,  sesquioxide  of  iron  2.25.  Accord- 
ing to  Prof.  Beck  (Min.  N.  Y.,  78),  oxide  of  iron  is  rather 
prejudicial  to  it  than  otherwise. 

Carrara  Marble  has  the  following  composition,  according 
to  Kseppel  (J.  Pr.  Ch.,  Ivii,  324) :  CaC  98.765,  MgC  0.900, 
Si  0.006,  Fe,  Mn,  -M  0.083,  sand  0.1560,  £  and  loss  0.090  =  100. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  255 

DOLOMITE. 

When  dolomite  is  pure,  it  has  the  following  composition : 
CaC  54.35,  MgC  45.65  (CaC  +  MgC).  Crystallizes  in  rhombo- 
hedron,  the  angle  of  which,  on  account  of  its  variation  of 
composition,  varies  between  106°  10'  and  106°  20'.  Hardness 
=  3.5-4.  Specific  gravity,  2.8-2.9,  true  dolomite.  Lustre 
vitreous,  inclining  to  pearly  in  some  varieties.  Colors  are  not 
very  decided,  although  it  rnay  be  white,  reddish,  or  greenish- 
white  ;  also  rose-red,  green,  brown,  gray,  and  black.  A  very 
rare  variety,  miemite,  has  a  very  decided  green  color  (aspara- 
gus green),  owing  to  the  presence  of  iron.  Part  of  the 
magnesia  is  replaced  in  some  dolomites  by  protoxide  of  iron, 
manganese,  and,  more  rarely,  oxide  of  cobalt  and  zinc. 

A  sample  of  dolomite  from  Westchester  County,  N.  Y.3 
gave,  according  to  Alsop  (Ann.  Lye.,  IS".  Y.,  viii) :  CaC  54.91, 
MgC  43.63,  FeC  1.23,  insol.  1.30  =  100  oz. 

A  sample  of  mierno,  miemite  (Rammelsberg,  Min.  Ch.,  213), 
gave:  CaC  57.91,  MgC  38.97,  FeC  1.74,  MnC,  0.57  =  99.19. 

A  sample  of  Jena,  crystallized,  uncolored,  gave,  according  to 
Suckow :  CaC  55.2,  MgC  44.7  =  99.9. 

T.  S.  Hunt  says  that  dolomites  make  up  the  chief  part  of 
the  Calciferous,  Clinton,  Trenton,  Guelp,  Niagara,  and  Onon- 
daga  limestones  of  Canada.  Thus  we  see  that  the  limestone 
strata  of  the  globe  is  partly  dolomitic. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  acts  like  calcite,  but  with  nitrate  of 
cobalt  the  presence  of  magnesia  can  be  ascertained.  Dolomite 
does  not  effervesce  as  easily  as  calcite,  especially  when  pure. 
If  in  a  powdered  state  and  heated,  the  acid  dissolves  it.  Ter- 
riferous  dolomites  become  brown  on  exposure. 

Dolomite  is  found  at  Salzburg,  the  Tyrol ;  Hungary,  Frei- 
berg, in  Saxony.  In  the  United  States,  in  Vermont,  at  Rox- 
bury ;  in  Rhode  Island,  at  Smithfield ;  New  Jersey,  at  Hobo- 
ken  ;  New  York,  at  Lockport,  Niagara  Falls,  and  Rochester. 
Dolomite  is  sometimes  used  for  making  lime ;  some  varieties 
are  used  as  marble.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
Epsom  salts. 


256  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


7.  CARBON. 

Carbon  occurs  in  nature  crystallized  as  the  Diamond  and 
as  Graphite. 

DIAMOND. 

The  diamond  is  nearly,  chemically,  pure  carbon.  It  crys- 
tallizes in  the  Isometric  system.  Its  forms  are  various.  Its 
usual  forms  are,  though,  the  octahedron  and  the  hexoctahedron. 
Hardness  =  10.  Sp.  Gr.  =  3.52955  (Thompson);  3.55  (Pe- 
louze).  Color  white  or  colorless;  occasionally  tinged  yellow, 
red,  orange,  green,  blue,  brown,  and  sometimes  black.  Lustre 
brilliant  adamantine.  Transparent,  translucent,  and  opaque. 
Fracture  conchoidal.  Index  of  refraction  2.439.  Exhibits 
vitreous  electricity  when  rubbed. 

The  crystals  often  contain  numerous  microscopic  cavities,  as 
detected  by  Brewster,  and  some  are  rendered  nearly  black  by 
their  number.  The  black  planes  of  diamonds  reflect  all  the 
light  that  strikes  them  at  an  angle  exceeding  24°  13',  and 
hence  comes  the  peculiar  brilliancy  of  the  gem.  In  black 
pebbles  or  masses  called  carbonada,  occasionally  1000  carats 
in  weight.  Hardness  =  10.  Sp.  Gr.  ==  3.012-3.416.  Consist 
of  pure  carbon,  excepting  0.27  to  2.07  per  cent. 

The  diamond  was  burned  in  the  academy  at  Florence  for 
the  first  time  in  1694,  by  a  powerful  burning-glass.  The 
crystalline  colorless  varieties  gave  only  0.01  per  cent,  of  ash. 
In  the  colored  varieties  the  proportion  is  larger,  the  black 
diamond  giving  2-3  per  cent. 

The  Ancients  knew  nothing  about  cutting  diamonds,  and 
wore  the  natural  stone.  Louis  Berquen  of  Bruges  in  Belgium, 
in  1456,  discovered  for  the  first  time  the  method  of  cutting  the 
diamond  so  as  to  increase  its  lustre.  Diamonds  not  fit  to  cut 
are  used  for  ends  of  tools  for  drilling  or  turning  hard  rocks, 
such  as  granite  or  porphyry.  The  small  stones  which  have  a 
very  sharp  edge  are  used  for  cutting  glass.  The  clear  stones 
of  diamonds  have  long  been  used  as  jewels  for  watches.  The 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


257 


black  diamond  has  also  been  used  for  a  long  time  for  turning, 
and  lately  in  this  country  for  drilling  the  harder  rocks. 

A  diamond  of  5-6  carats  is  a  very  large  stone ;  those  of 
12-20  are  very  rare,  and  very  few  are  known  that  weigh  more 
than  100  carats. 

WEIGHT  OF  THE  LARGEST  DIAMONDS  KNOWN. 


NAME. 

UNCUT. 

CUT. 

NAME. 

UNCUT. 

CUT. 

Rajah  

_ 

367  carats. 

Piggott  

82£  carats 

Great  Mogul  

900  carats. 

279rsir  " 

Nassac.  .  .  . 

89f  carats 

781      " 

Orloff  

194J    " 

Dresden 

76*      " 

Koh-i-noor  

793      " 

186      " 

Saucy  .  .  . 

531      *i 

Portuguese.  

148      " 

Eugenie  

51        " 

Florentine  

139i    " 

Pasha 

49        " 

Regent  
Star  of  the  South... 

410      *' 
25H    " 

136f    " 
125£    " 

Dresden  (green).. 
Hope  (hlue).... 

- 

48*      " 
44^      " 

Koh-i-noor  (recut)  . 

106TV  " 

Polar  Star  

40       " 

Shah 

95      " 

32       " 

Sultan  of  Turkey... 

- 

84      " 

Russian  (red)  

- 

10 

As  the  diamond  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  from  some 
closely  allied  stones,  it  is  better  not  to  trust  to  the  judgment 
alone,  though  some  jewelers  think  they  can  detect  the  dia- 
mond with  ease. 

The  following  table,  given  by  Prof.  Egleston,  affords  a 
scientific  means : 

TABLE  FOR  DISTINGUISHING  PRECIOUS  STONES. 


STONE. 

DENSITY. 

REFRACTION. 

INDEX  OF 
REFRACTION. 

ELECTRICITY. 

Diamond  

Ruby,  Sapphire,  and 
Oriental  Amethyst 

Chrysoberyl 

3.52-3.55 
j-  3.9-4.3 
3.5—3  8 

Simple. 
Double,  1  axis. 
Double 

2.455 
1.765 
1.760 

Positive,  not  durable. 
Lasts  several  hours. 
Lasts  several  hours. 

White  Topaz  
Chrysolite  
Emerald  

34-3.6 
3.3-3.5 
2.6—2.8 

Double,  2  axes. 
Double. 
Double  1  axis. 

1.635 
1.660 

1.585 

More  than  24  hourc. 
Positive. 
Positive. 

Spinel 

3  4—3  8 

1755 

Not  tried. 

Zircon  
Quartz  

4.4—4.6 
2.6—2.8 

Double,  1  axis. 
Double,  1  axis. 

1.990 
1.549 

Positive,  not  durable. 
Positive,  not  durable. 

Strass  

Var  35 

Simple 

Not  durable,  variable. 

17 


258  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Some  diamonds  have  red,  white  and  black  spots,  and  if  the 
diamond  is  heated  to  redness,  protected  from  the  air,  these 
spots  disappear.  This  would  seem  to  speak  for  the  formation 
of  the  diamond  below  red-heat.  Jacquelin  transformed  the 
diamond  into  graphite  by  exposing  it  to  an  electrical  current, 
which  seems  to  prove  that  diamond  and  graphite  are  only 
allotropic  conditions  of  carbon.  The  diamond  has  been  formed 
probably,  like  coal,  by  a  slow  decomposition  of  substances 
containing  carbon,  whether  vegetable  or  mineral,  or  even 
animal  matters.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  make  the 
diamond  artificially,  but  only  very  small  crystals,  if  any,  have 
been  formed. 

The  finest  diamonds  have  been  obtained  from  the  mines  of 
India,  which  are  no  longer  worked.  There  are  diamond  mines 
in  the  Urals  and  in  Brazil.  The  Brazil  mines  were  opened  in 
1727,  and  it  is  estimated  that  at  least  two  tons  of  diamonds 
have  been  obtained  from  them.  Diamonds  are  also  largely 
found  in  Africa,  in  the  province  of  Constantine.  In  the  United 
States,  a  few  crystals  have  been  found  in  Rutherford  Co.,  N.  C., 
and  Hall  Co.  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  II,  ii,  253,  and  xv,  373) ;  they  have 
been  found  also  in  Portis  mine,  Franklin  Co.,  N.  C.  (Genth)  ; 
one  handsome  one,  over  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  was 
found  in  the  village  of  Manchester,  opposite  Richmond,  Ya. 
Diamonds  have  also  been  found  in  California,  Nevada  and 
Colorado. 

A  diamond,  when  cut  and  polished,  of  the  purest  water 
(perfectly  colorless,  without  any  defects),  weighing  one  carat, 
is  valued  at  £12  in  England ;  and  the  value  of  others  is  calcu- 
lated by  multiplying  the  square  of  the  weight  by  12,  except 
for  those  exceeding  20  carats,  the  value  of  which  increase  at  a 
much  more  rapid  rate.  The  slightest  tinge  or  color,  or  defect, 
aifects  greatly  the  commercial  value. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


259 


GRAPHITE. 

Graphite  is  also  called  Plumbago  and  Black  Lead.  Its 
composition  is  pure  carbon,  with  often  a  little  oxide  of  iron 
mechanically  mixed. 

The  following  analyses  have  been  made  of  different  graphites 
by  C.  Mene  (C.  K.,  Ixiv,  1091,  1867)  : 


LOCALITIES. 

SP.  GB. 

CARBON. 

VOL. 

ASH. 

COMPOSITION  100  PARTS  ASH. 

Si. 

&. 

Fe. 

MgCa. 

Alk.  and 
loss. 

Ural,  Mt.Alibert.. 

2.1759 

94.03 

0.72 

5.25 

64.2 

24.7 

10 

0.8 

0.3 

Cumberland,  Eng. 

2.3455 

91.55 

1.10 

7.35 

52.5 

28.3 

12 

6.0 

1.2 

Ceara,  Brazil  

2.3865 

77.15 

2.55 

20.30 

79.0 

11.7 

7.8 

1.5 

— 

Kegnault  (Ann.  Ch.  Phys.,  II,  i,  202)  found : 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

H. 

ASH. 

Canada  (I)                           ... 

86.8 

0.5 

12.6    —    99  9 

"        (II)               

76.35 

0.70 

23.40  -  100.45 

"        (III)    ...                           ... 

9856 

1.34 

0  20  —  100  10 

Hardness  =  1-2.  Specific  gravity  =  2.0891 ;  of  Ticonder- 
oga,  2.229  (Kenngott);  2. 14  (Wunsiedel,  Fuchs).  Color,  black. 
Streak,  black  and  shining.  Lustre  metallic,  opaque.  Sectile ; 
soils  the  fingers.  Infusible.  Burns  at  a  high  temperature, 
without  flame  or  smoke,  leaving  usually  some  oxide  of  iron. 
Not  acted  on  by  acids. 

Graphite  in  some  places  is  coal  altered  by  heat.  It  is 
largely  used  in  the  arts  for  the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils 
and  crucibles,  also  as  a  lubricator.  It  is  found  at  Burrowdale, 
in  Cumberland.  Found  in  the  United  States  in  Massachu- 
setts, Ehode  Island,  Connecticut,  Vermont,  New  York,  and 
elsewhere. 


260 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


8,    CHROMIUM. 

The  principal  Chromium  mineral  is  chromite  (Fe,  Cr,  Mg) 
(Al,  Fe,  6r).  This  mineral,  called  also  chromic  iron,  is  the 
ore  which  furnishes  the  chromium  in  the  arts.  When  pure, 
contains  oxide  of  iron  32,  and  oxide  of  chromium  68  =  100 
(Fe  €r). 

The  following  table*  contains  a  number  of  analyses  of 
chromic  iron : 


LOCALITIES. 

FE. 

MG. 

-OB. 

'AL. 

Si. 

1.  Chester  County  Pa  .. 

3514 

51  56 

972 

2  90  —  99  32 

2.        "             "         " 

Fe  3895 

6084 

093 

0  62     Ni  0  10 

3.  Baltimore  (massive)  

18.97 

9.96 

4491 

13.85 

0.83  -  98  35 

4.         "          (crystallized).... 

20.13 

7.45 

60.04 

11.85 

—   =  99.45 

Hardness  =  5.5.  Specific  gravity,  4.321,  crystals  (Thom- 
son) ;  4.498,  a  variety  from  Styria ;  4.568,  Texas,  Pennsylvania. 
Lustre  is  semi-metallic.  Fracture  uneven.  Color,  brownish- 
black.  Streak,  brown.  Opaque.  Sometimes  slightly  mag- 
netic. Chromic  iron  is  one  of  the  spinels  of  iron,  a  sort  of 
magnetite,  and  cannot  be  distinguished  from  magnetite  with 
certainty  except  by  its  chemical  properties. 

Chromic  iron  is  not  fusible  before  the  blowpipe ;  in  R.  F. 
becomes  slightly  rounded  on  the  edges,  as  also  magnetic. 
With  borax  and  salt  of  phosphorus  when  cool  give  chrome- 
green  color ;  the  green  color  is  heightened  by  fusion  on  char- 
coal with  metallic  tin.  It  is  not  attacked  by  acids,  but 
decomposed  by  fusion  with  bisulphate  of  potash  and  soda. 

Occurs  in  serpentine,  forming  veins,  or  imbedded  masses. 
It  assists  in  giving  the  variegated  color  to  verde-antique 
marble. 


*  Analysis  No.  1,  Seybert  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  iv,  321) ;  No.  2,  Starr  (Am.  J.  Sci., 
II,  xiv);  No.  3,  Abich ;  No.  4,  Abicli  (Pogg.,  xxiii,  335). 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


261 


It  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  veins  or  masses  in  serpen- 
tine, at  Baltimore,  Md.  Found  in  crystals  abundantly  in 
Pennsylvania.  Found  massive  in  New  Jersey,  Yermont, 
Massachusetts,  and  California. 

The  ore  obtained  in  England  is  procured  mostly  from  Balti- 
more, Drontheim,  and  Shetland  Isles ;  it  amounts  to  2000  tons 
annually. 

9.   COBALT. 

The  principal  Cobalt  minerals  are : 


NAME. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GK. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Linnseite  

5.5 

.4.8—5 

2Co  S  +  Co  Sa 

Co  =  58;    S  =  42 

Bieberite  

—  ?  — 

1.924 

.   (Co,  Mg)  S  +  7H 

Co  =  25.5;    S  =  28.4;    H  =  46.1 

Smaltite  

5.5—6 

6.4—7.2 

(Co,  Fe,  Ni)  As2 

Co=9.4;  As=72.1;  Ni=9.5;  Fe=9 

Cobaltite  

5.5 

6—6.3 

Co  (S,  As)2 

Co  =  35.5;    As  =  45.2;    S  =  19.3 

Erythrite  

1.5—2.5 

2.948 

Co'X's  +  8H 

Co=37.55;   A*s=38.43;   H=34.02 

Remingtonite. 

—  ?  — 

—  ?  — 

9  

y  

Earthy  Cobalt. 

2—2.5 

3.15-3.29 

(Co,  Ca)  Mn2  +  4H 

Sometimes  32#  Co 

SMALTITE. 

The  composition  of  smaltite  when  pure  is  Co  =  9.4 ;  As  = 
T2.1 ;  Ni  =  9.5  ;  Fe  =  9.0  (Co,  Fe,  Ni)  As2.  The  following  are 
a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

As. 

Co. 

Ni. 

FE. 

Cu. 

S. 

Bi. 

1.  Schneeberg    .... 

70.37 

13.95 

1.79 

11.71 

1.39 

0.66 

0.01  =  99.88 

2.  Chatham,  Conn  

70.11 

3.82 

9.44 

11.85 

4.78 

—  =  100 

3.  Richelsdorf,  Conn... 

60.42 

10.80 

25.87 

0.80 

— 

2.11 

—  =100 

Analysis  No.  1  was  made  by  Hoffmann  (Fogg.,  xxv,  485);  No.  2  by  Genth;  No.  3  by 
Eammelsberg. 

Hardness  =  5.5-6.     Specific  gravity,  4.4-7.2.     Color  gen- 
erally a  silver  or  tin  white,  sometimes  iridescent  or  grayish 


262 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


from  tarnish.  Streak  grayish-black.  Lustre  metallic.  Brittle. 
Fracture  granular  and  uneven. 

On  charcoal  it  gives  off  arsenic,  and  fuses  to  a  globule.  In 
a  closed  tube  gives  a  sublimate  of  metallic  arsenic ;  in  an  open 
tube  a  white  sublimate  of  arsenious  acid,  and  sometimes  traces 
of  sulphurous  acid.  With  the  fluxes  it  affords  the  reactions  for 
Co,  Fe,  and  Ni.  It  is  not  attacked  by  the  non-oxidizing  acids. 

Occurs  with  silver  and  copper  at  Freiberg  and  particularly 
at  Schneeberg,  in  Saxony.  It  has  been  found  at  Chatham, 
Conn. ;  also  in  crystals  at  Mine  La  Motte,  Missouri.  It  is 
used  for  making  smalt ;  hence  its  name. 


COBALTITE. 

Cobaltite  has  the  following  composition  when  pure :  Cobalt 
=  35.5  ;  arsenic  —  45.2  ;  sulphur  =  19.3  [CoS2  +  CoAs2  or 
Co  (S,  As)2].  The  cobalt,  though,  is  sometimes  replaced 
largely  by  iron,  and  sparingly  by  copper. 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

As. 

Co. 

FE. 

1    Skutterud        

20.08 

43.46 

33.10 

3.23  =  99.87 

2          " 

2025 

42.97 

32.07 

3.42,    quart 

z  1.63  -  100.34 

3.  Siegen  plumose  

19.08 

43.14 

9.62 

24.99,  Sb  1.04, 

Cu2.36,  gangue  0.52=100.75 

Analysis  No.  1  was  made  by  Strom eyer  (Schw.  J.,  xix,  336). 
u         No.  2         "         u      Ebinghaus  (Ramm.,  4th  Suppl.,  116). 
"         No.  3         "         "     Heidingsfeld  (Ramm.,  5th  Suppl.) 

Hardness  =  5.5.  Specific  gravity  =  6-6.3.  Color  silver 
white,  often  a  little  rosy  and  also  grayish,  if  much  iron  is 
present.  Streak  grayish-black.  Lustre  metallic.  Fracture 
uneven  and  lamellar.  Brittle. 

Not  altered  in  a  closed  tube,  but  in  an  open  tube  gives 
sulphurous  fumes,  and  a  crystalline  sublimate  of  arsenious 
acid.  On  charcoal,  affords  fumes  of  sulphur  and  arsenic,  and 
fuses  to  a  magnetic  globule.  With  the  fluxes  gives  the  reac- 
tions for  Ni,  Co,  Fe.  It  is  soluble  in  warm  nitric  acid,  sepa- 
rating arsenious  acid  and  sulphur. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


263 


Found  at  Hokansbo  and  Tunaberg,  in  Sweden,  in  splendid 
large  crystals.  Also  at  Skutterud,  in  Norway.  The  most 
productive  mines  are  those  of  Vena,  in  Sweden,  where  it 
occurs  in  mica  slate ;  these  mines  were  first  opened  in  1809. 
This  species  and  smaltite  afford  the  greater  part  of  the  smalt 
of  commerce.  Sometimes  the  black  oxide  of  cobalt,  a  kind  of 
bog  ore  and  very  impure,  is  sometimes  sufficiently  abundant 
to  be  valuable. 


10.   COPPER. 

The  principal  Copper  minerals  are : 


NAME. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GB. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Native  Copper 
Cuprite 

2.5 
3.5—4 

8.838 
5.85  6,15 

Cu 

-eu 

Cu  =  100 
Cu  =  88.8  ;    O  =  11.2 

Chalcocite  

2.5—3 

5.5—5.8 

•ens 

Cu  =  79.8;     S  =  20.2 

Bornite  . 

3 

4.4—5.5 

(CuFe)S 

j           For  (|Cu  +  |Fe)  S  = 
(Cu=70.13;    Fe=7.76;    8=22.11 

Chalcopyrite.  . 

3,5-4 

4.1—4.3 

-Cu  S  +  Fe  S  +  Fe  Sa 

Cu  =  34.6;    Fe  =  30.5;    8  =  34.9 

Tennantite  .  .  . 

3.5—4 

4.37-4.53 

4  (-€u,Fe)  S  +  As3S3 

j       Cu  =  47.7;    Fe  =  9.75; 
{       As  =  12.46  ;     S  =  30.25 

Tetrahedrite.. 

3-4.5 

4.5-5.11 

4(Cu,Fe,Zn,Hg,Ag)S 
(Sb,  As)2S3 

)Cu=19.25;  Fe=2—  7;Zn  =  l—  7; 
Ag  =  0-31  ;    As  =  0—11  ; 
Sb  =  ll—  28;     8  =  19-26 

Chalcanthite.. 

2.5 

2.13 

Cu  S'  +  5  H 

Cu  =  31.8;    8  =  88.1;    H  =  36.1 

Brochantite... 

3.5—4 

3.78—3.87 

2Cu3  S  +  Cu  H  +  4H 

Cu  =  69  :    S  =  19.9  ;    H  =  11.1 

Atacamite  

3—3.5 

4-4.3 

Cu  Cl  H  +  3Cu  H 

Cu  =  53.6;  CuCl  =  30.2  ;  H  =  16.2 

Libethenite  .  .  . 

4 

3.6-3.8 

Cu4"P  +  H 

Cu  =  66.5;    p''=29.7;    H  =  3.8 

Olevenite  

3 

4.1-4.4 

Cu^A's/P;  +  H 

j         Cu  =  57.4;   'A's  =  35.7; 
(          "P*'=    3.7;      H=    3.2 

Liroconite  

2—2.5 

(  2.882- 
1  2.985 

{Cu  (As,*P) 
+  (SOU,  +  *MJ     - 
H3  +  9H 

j      Cu  =  36.38;    'As  =  23.05. 
\  P''=  3.73  ;  '-Al  =  10.85  ;  H  =25.01 

Malachite  

3.5-4 

3.7—4.01 

Cu2  C  +  H 

Cu  =  71.9  ;    C  =  19.9  ;    H  =  8.2 

Azurite  

3.5-^.25 

3.5—3.831 

2Cu  C  +  Cu  H 

Cu  =  69.2  ;    C  =  25.6  ;    H  =  5.2 

264  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

NATIVE    COPPER. 

"When  perfectly  pure,  native  copper  consists  of  copper, 
100  per  cent.,  but  it  often  contains  some  silver  and  bismuth. 
Hautefeuille  states  that  a  Lake  Superior  specimen  gave  cop- 
per 69.280,  silver  5.543,  mercury  0.0119,  gangue  25.248; 
while  F.  A.  Abel  found  in  a  specimen  of  same,  which  had  a 
thick  vein  of  native  silver  running  through  it,  0.002  per  cent, 
of  silver,  with  a  trace  of  lead,  and  in  another  0.56  silver  (J.  Ch. 
Soc.,  II,  i,  89).  Abel  obtained  for  a  Uralian,  from  the 
Kirghiz  District,  0.034  silver,. 0.11  bismuth,  a  trace  of  lead, 
and  1.28  of  arsenic.  Color,  copper  red.  Streak,  metallic, 
shining;  ductile  and  malleable.  Fracture  is  hackly.  Lustre 
metallic. 

Fuses  easily ;  on  cooling  becomes  covered  with  a  coating  of 
black  oxide.  Dissolves  readily  in  acids. 

Copper  occurs  native  in  beds  and  veins,  and  is  most  abun- 
dant in  the  vicinity  of  dikes  and  igneous  rocks.  Sometimes 
found  in  loose  masses  in  the  soil. 

Found  in  fine  crystals  at  Turinsk  in  the  Urals.  Brazil, 
Chili,  Bolivia  and  Peru  aiford  native  copper.  Found  also  in 
China  and  Japan.  Found  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and 
New  Jersey.  The  largest  deposits  in  the  world  are  found, 
though,  at  Kewenaw  Point,  Lake  Superior,  where  it  occurs  in 
veins  that  intersect  the  trap  and  sandstone.  The  largest  mass 
of  copper  ever  found  was  at  the  Minnesota  mine ;  it  was  45  feet 
in  length,  22  feet  at  the  greatest  width,  and  the  thickest  part 
was  eight  feet.  It  contained  over  90  per  cent,  of  copper,  and 
weighed  about  420  tons.  Found  also  in  small  quantities  in 
California  and  Colorado,  and  in  large  drift  masses  in  Russian 
America. 

CUPRITE. 

The  composition  of  Cuprite,  when  pure,  is  copper  88.8; 
oxygen  11.2  (Cu).  It  sometimes  affords  traces  of  selenium. 
Yon  Bibra  found  the  tile  ore  of  Algodon  Bay,  Bolivia,  to  con- 
tain chlorine,  and  to  be  a  mixture  of  atacamite,  cuprite,  hema- 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


265 


tite,  and  other  earthy  materials ;  he  obtained  from  one,  ata- 
comite  31.32,  cuprite  10.85,  sesquioxide  of  iron  20.50,  gangue 
34.42,  water,  antimony  and  loss  2.87  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  xcvi,  203). 

Color  is  dark  blood-red,  sometimes  almost  black.  Streak 
dark  cochineal-red.  Subtransparent,  subtranslucent.  Frac- 
ture conchoidal,  uneven.  Brittle.  Lustre  adamantine  or  sub- 
metallic  to  earthy. 

In  oxidizing  flame,  it  is  infusible,  and  gives  a  black  scoria. 
In  the  reducing  flame,  it  gives  a  button  of  metallic  copper, 
which  is  malleable  and  ductile.  Soluble  in  HC1  and  HN03. 
Unaltered  in  the  closed  tube. 

Abundant  in  Chili,  Peru  and  Bolivia.  Crystals  in  this 
region  simply  cubes  (D.  Forbes).  When  found  in  large  quan- 
tities, this  mineral  is  valuable  as  an  ore  of  copper.  Found  at 
Sommerville,  N.  J.,  Cornwall,  Pa.,  and  Lake  Superior. 

CHALCOCITE. 

Composition,  when  pure,  copper  79.8,  sulphur  20.2  (CuS). 
It  generally  contains  iron,  and  sometimes  silica  and  silver. 


LOCALITIES. 

8. 

Cu. 

FE. 

Si. 

1   Sieeen 

1900 

7950 

0.75 

1.00  -  100.25 

2.  Monta°one,  Tuscany      

21.90 

71.31 

6.49 

—   =    99.70 

3  Bristol  Conn 

2026 

79  42 

033 

Ag  0.11  =  100.12 

Analysis  No.  1  is  by  Ullmann  (Syst.  tab.  Uebeis,  243). 
44         No.  2  (Ramm.,  5th  Suppl.,  151,  and  Min.  Ch.,  997). 
•'         No.  3  (Private  contribution  to  Dana's  Mineralogy). 

Hardness  =  2.5-3.  Sp.  Gr.  =  5.5-5.8  ;  5.7522  (Thompson). 
It  crystallizes  as  a  right  rhombic  prism  119°  35'.  Color  and 
streak  dark-blue,  almost  black.  Lustre  metallic.  Streak  some- 
times shining.  Ductile,  easily  cut  with  knife  into  curved 
shavings. 

Yields  nothing  volatile  in  closed  tube.  Melts  in  flame  of 
candle,  giving  off  sulphurous  fumes.  Melts  to  globule  of  cop- 
per on  charcoal.  Soluble  in  hot  nitric  acid. 

Splendid  crystals  are  found  at  Cornwall.     Found  massive 


266 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


in  Siberia,  Tuscany,  Mexico,  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Chili.  Found 
massive  at  Bristol,  Conn. ;  also  in  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Yirgiriia,  and  other  States. 


BORNITE. 

The  formula  for  Bornite  is  (Cu,Fe)S,  with  the  proportion 
of  copper  and  iron  varying.     The  following  are  some  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

Cti. 

FE. 

1.  St  Pancrace  .  .  . 

22.8 

59.2 

13.0   gangue  5  0  —  100 

'2.  Delarne  (massive)  . 

25.80 

56.10 

17.36,  Si  —  0.13  —    99  3 

9 

3   Jeurteland  Sweden 

2449 

5971 

11  12  Mn  trace  Si  —  3  8 

3—  99  15 

4  Ramos  Mexico 

2346 

62.17 

11  79  Ag  -  2  58  -  100 

' 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Berthier  (Ann.  de  M.,  Ill,  vii,  540,  556). 
"         No.  2  by  Plattner  (Pogg.,  xlvii,  351). 
"         No.  3  by  D.  Forbes  (Ed.  N.  Phil.  J.,  I,  278). 
"         No.  4  by  C.  Bergemann  (Jahrb.  Min.,  1857,  354). 


Hardness  =  3.  Specific  gravity  =  4.4-5.5.  Specific  gravity 
of  Analysis  No.  3,  4.432.  Color  is  reddish-brown,  or  a  black 
violet-blue,  with  a  great  variation  in  colors,  owing  to  tarnish. 
Streak  pale  grayish-black,  or  blackish  bronze-yellow,  slightly 
shining.  Lustre  metallic.  Fracture  small  conchoidal,  uneven. 
Brittle. 

Gives  in  a  closed  tube  a  faint  sublimate  of  sulphur.  In  the 
oxidizing  flame  it  is  roasted  with  sulphurous  odor;  in  the 
reducing  flame  a  half-melted  globule,  which  is  attracted  by 
the  magnet.  Soluble  in  nitric  acid  with  separation  of  sulphur. 

It  is  generally  found  compact,  and  owing  to  its  variation  of 
colors,  easily  detected.  It  is  a  valuable  ore  of  copper.  Crys- 
talline varieties  are  found  at  Cornwall,  and  mostly  near 
Kedruth.  It  is  the  principal  copper  ore  at  some  Chilian  mines, 
especially  those  of  Tamayo  and  Sapos  ;  also  common  in  Peru, 
Bolivia  and  Mexico.  At  the  copper  mines  of  Bristol,  Conn., 
it  is  abundant,  and  often  in  fine  crystals.  It  occurs  also  in 
Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  elsewhere. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


267 


CHALCOPYRITE. 

The  composition  of  Chalcopyrite,  when  pure,  is  copper  34.6, 
sulphur  34.9,  iron  30.5  (CuS  +  FeS+FeS2)  =  2(JCu  +  £Fe)S  + 
FeS2.  Some  analyses  give  other  proportions;  but  probably 
from  mixture  of  pyrite. 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

On. 

FE. 

QUARTZ. 

1    Sayn                       ... 

35.87 

3440 

3047 

0  27  —  100  01 

2.  JemtelM,  Sweden  
3  Phenixville 

33.88 
36.10 

32.65 
3285 

37.77 
2993 

Mn  trace,  Si  0.32  =  99.62 
Pb  0  35  —  99  23 

Analysis  No.  1  by  H.  Rose  (Gibb,  Ixxii,  185). 

"         No.  2  by  D.  Forbes  (Ed.  N.  Phil.  J.,  I,  278). 
"         No.  3  by  J.  L.  Smith  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  II,  xx,  24 


Hardness  =  3.5-4.  Specific  gravity  ==  4.1-4.3.  Color  is 
brass-yellow,  with  metallic  lustre.  It  is  subject  to  tarnish, 
and  is  often  iridescent.  Streak  is  greenish-black,  a  little 
shining.  Opaque.  Fracture  conchoidal,  uneven. 

Decrepitates  in  a  closed  tube,  and  gives  a  sulphur  sublimate. 
On  charcoal,  before  the  blowpipe  it  melts,  gives  off  sulphurous 
acid,  and  yields  a  metallic  globule.  Dissolves  in  nitric  acid, 
with  separation  of  sulphur. 

Chalcopyrite  is  a  very  valuable  ore  of  copper.  At  the  Corn- 
wall mines,  it  is  the  principal  ore  of  copper,  and  10,000  to 
12,000  tons  of  pure  copper  are  smelted  annually  from  150,000 
to  160,000  tons  of  ore.  There  are  large  beds  of  this  ore  at 
Fahlun,  in  Sweden;  it  occurs  also  at  Rammelsburg,  in  the 
Harz.  Found  in  fine  crystals  at  Cerro  Blanco,  in  Chili.  It 
is  found  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Yermont,  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  'New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  North  Caro- 
lina, Tennessee,  and  California.  The  ore  is  extensively  mined 
at  Bruce  mine  on  Lake  Huron. 


268 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


TETRAHEDRITE. 

The  composition  of  Tetrahedrite  is  copper  19-25,  iron  2-7, 
zinc,  1-7,  silver  0-31,  arsenic  0-11,  antimony  11-28,  sulphur 
19-26  [4(€u,  Fe,  Zn,  Hg,  Ag)S(SbAs)2S3]. 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

SB. 

As. 

Cu. 

FE. 

ZN. 

AG. 

1.  Rammelsberg  (massive) 
2.  Arkansas'  

25.82 
26.71 

28.78 
26.50 

1.02 

37.95 
36.40 

2.24 
1.89 

2.52 

4.20 

0.67  =  97.98 
2.30  -  99.02 

3.  Freiberg  .   .. 

21  17 

2463 

14  81 

5  98 

0.99 

31.29  -  98  87 

4.  Poratsch,  Hungary  
5.         "              "        

6.  Kotterbach  

22.00 
24.37 

22.53 

31.56 
25.48 

19.34 

trace 
2.94 

39.04 
30.58 

3534 

7.38 
1.46 

0.87 

0.69 

0.12,  Hg  0.52  =  100.62 
0.09,  Hg  16.69  =  98.67 
j  —     Hg  17.27,  PbO.21, 

7.  Moschellandsberg.  . 

21.90 

2345 

031 

32  19 

141 

010 

j              Bi  0.81  -  100 

(  0.10,  Hg  17.32,  Co  0.23, 
•<    Bi  1  57  gangue  1  39 

I                =  99.87 

Analysis  No.  1  by  (B.  H.  Ztg.,  1853,  No.  2) ;  Analysis  No.  2  by  J.  L.  Smith  (Ann.  J.  Sci.,, 
H,  xliii,  67) ;  Analysis  No.  3 by  H.  Rose  (Pogg.,  xv,  576) ;  Analyses  No.  4  and  No.  5  are  by 
Hauer  (Jahrb.  g.  Reichs,  1852,  98 ;  J.  pr.  Ch.,  Ix,  55) ;  Analysis  No.  6  by  G.  v.  Rath  (Pogg.v 
xcvi,  322) ;  Analysis  No.  7  by  Oellacher  (Jahrb.  Min.,  1865,  594). 

Hardness  =  3-4.5.  Specific  gravity  =  4.5-5.11.  Color  is 
a  blackish-gray,  which  is  more  or  less  dark.  Streak  gener- 
ally same  as  color ;  sometimes  inclined  to  brown  and  cherry- 
red.  Opaque.  Lustre  metallic.  Rather  brittle. 

In  the  oxidizing  flame,  on  charcoal,  it  is  roasted,  giving  a 
slight  odor  of  arsenic  and  fumes  of  antimony,  and  in  the 
reducing  flame,  gives  a  brittle  globule  of  copper.  Decom- 
posed by  nitric  acid,  with  separation  of  antimonious  and  arse- 
nious  acids. 

It  is  found  in  masses  with  or  without  gangue.  The  Cornish 
mines,  near  St.  Aust.  have  afforded  large  tetrahedral  crystals 
with  rough  and  dull  surfaces.  More  brilliant  crystals  occur 
in  Cornwall.  The  ore  containing  mercury  occurs  in  Schmol- 
nitz,  Hungary.  Tetrahedrite  is  found  in  Mexico,  Chili,  Ar- 
kansas, California,  and  Arizona. 

MALACHITE. 

Composition  of  Malachite,  when  pure,  is  protoxide  of  copper 
71.9;  carbonic  acid  19.9;  water  8.2  (Cu2C  +  H  =  CuC  +  CuH). 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


269 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

Cu. 

H. 

1    Turjiusk  Ural 

180 

70.5 

11.5  -  100 

3   Chessy  

21.25 

70.10 

8  75  -  100  10 

3  Phenixville 

19.09 

71  46 

9  02   Fe  0  12  —  99  69 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Kaproth  (Beitr.,  ii,  287, 1797). 
"         No.  2  by  Vauquelin  (Ann.  du  Mus.,  xx,  1). 
"         No.  3  by  J.  L.  Smith  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  H,  xx,  249). 

Hardness  =  3.5-4.  Specific  gravity  =  3.7-4.01.  Color  is 
green,  and  may  be  of  different  degrees  of  intensity.  Streak 
paler  than  color.  Translucent,  opaque.  Lustre  of  crystals. 
Adamantine,  inclining  to  vitreous ;  of  fibrous  varieties  more 
or  less  silky  ;  often  dull  and  earthy.  Fracture  subconchoidal, 
uneven.  It  crystallizes  an  inclined  rhombic  prism  of  104°  28'. 

In  a  closed  tube  blackens  and  gives  off  water.  It  melts  at  2, 
coloring  the  flame  green,  and  gives  a  scoriaceous  mass.  On 
charcoal  with  the  reducing  flame  gives  a  globule  of  metallic 
-copper.  Soluble  in  acids  with  effervescence. 

Green  malachite  accompanies  other  ores  of  copper."  It  is 
usually  found  in  concretionary  masses,  which  have  a  fibrous 
fracture,  rarely  conchoidal.  Their  lustre  is  silky  and  velvety. 

Occurs  abundantly  in  the  Urals ;  at  Chessy,  in  France ;  in 
the  old  mine  at  Sandlodge,  in  Shetland ;  in  the  Tyrol ;  in 
Cornwall  and  Cumberland,  England  ;  also  in  handsome  masses 
at  Bembe,  on  west  coast  of  Africa ;  also  in  Cuba,  Chili,  and 
Australia.  It  is  found  in  the  United  States  at  Cheshire,  Conn. 
In  ~New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Wisconsin  and  Cal- 
ifornia. Malachite  is  a  valuable  ore  of  copper,  when  found  in 
large  quantities.  It  admits  of  a  high  polish,  and  when  in 
large  masses  is  cut  into  tables,  vases,  etc.  It  is  often  employed 
for  veneering  large  articles,  such  as  tables,  doors,  etc.  A  mass 
weighing  forty  tons  was  found  in  Siberia. 

AZURITE. 

Composition  of  Azurite,  when  pure,  is  oxide  of  copper  69.2, 
carbonic  acid  25.6,  water  5.2  (2CuC  +  CuH).  Hardness  = 


270 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


3.5-4.25.  Specific  gravity  =  3.5-3.83.  Color  is  azure-blue, 
which  is  more  or  less  dark.  Streak  is  lighter  than  color. 
Lustre  vitreous,  almost  adamantine.  Transparent,  subtrans- 
lucent.  Fracture  conchoidal.  Brittle.  It  crystallizes  as  an 
inclined  rhombic  prism  of  99°  32'. 

In  closed  tube  blackens  and  gives  off  water.  In  the  reducing 
flame,  on  charcoal,  a  globule  of  metallic  copper  is  produced. 
Soluble  in  acids  when  heated,  with  effervescence. 

It  is  sometimes  found  in  concretionary  masses  in  mamelons, 
which  are  sometimes  so  close  together  as  to  become  joined. 
Found  in  splendid  crystallizations  at  Chessy,  near  Lyons, 
whence  it  derived  the  name  Chessy  copper.  It  is  found  in 
Siberia ;  in  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  and  Derbyshire  in  England. 
Found  in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Wisconsin, 
and  California. 

When  found  in  large  quantities,  it  becomes  a  valuable  ore 
of  copper.  When  ground  to  an  impalpable  powder,  it  forms  a 
bright  paint  with  a  blue  tint ;  but  it  is  not  used  much  as  a 
pigment,  as  it  is  liable  to  turn  green. 


ii.  GOLD. 

The  principal  Gold  minerals  are  : 


NAME. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Native  Gold 

2.5—3 

15.6—19.5 

Pure,  Au. 

Pure,  100. 

Gold  Amalgam  
Sylvanite  

1.5—2 

j       5.732;       ) 

(Au,  Ag)aHgs 
(Ag,  Au)  Te3 

(Gold  38.39;    Mercury 
1     57.40  ;    Silver,  5.0. 

j  Au  28.5;  Te  55.8;  Ag  15.7 

1—1.5 

{  8.28  (Petz).  J 
6.85—7.2 

j  (Te,  S,  Pb,  j 

(Te32.2;  S3.0;  PI)  54.0; 

Petzite              .... 

*J 

8.72—8.83  (Petz) 

{  Au,  Ag,  Cu)  } 

AuTe  +  4^AgTe 
(Petz). 

(      Te  34.98  :  Ag  46.76  : 
1  Au  18.26;  Fe,  Pb,  S,  Tr. 

i 

9-9.4  (Kilstel) 

AuTe  +  3AgTe 
(Genth). 

AuTe4 

j      Te  32.23;  Ag  42.14; 
\              Au  25.63. 

Te  55.53  ;  Au  44.47. 

Palladium  (Porpezite). 
Rhodium  Gold. 

- 

15.5—16.8 

Au  Pd  (Ag) 
Au  Rd  (Ag) 

Au  85.98  ;  Pd9.85;  Ag4.17. 
Au  38.39  ;  Ag  5  ;  Rd  34-43£: 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


271 


NATIVE   GOLD. 

The  composition  of  native  gold,  when  pure,  is  gold,  but  it 
sometimes  contains  traces  of  copper,  iron,  palladium,  and 
rhodium. 


LOCALITIES. 

SP.  GR. 

Au. 

AG. 

FB. 

Cu. 

1.  Wicklow  County,  Ireland.  . 
2.  Boruschka  (N.  Tagil  sk)  .... 
3.  Bolivia,  Tipuani  

16.324 
18.66 
16.07 

92.32 
94.41 
91.96 

6.17 
5.23 

7.47 

0.78 
0.04 
Trace. 

—    =  99.27 
0.39  =  100 
—  gangue  0.57  —  100 

4.  New  Grenada,  Santa  Rosa. 
5.  Australia  

14.15 

64.93 
95.48 

35.07 
3.59 

—    =  100 
—   quartz  0.10  =  99.17 

6          " 

99  28 

044 

0.20 

0  07,       Bi  0.01  —  100 

7.  Tasmania,  Fingal  .... 

9089 

802 

Tr.,  Sn,  Pb,  Co  1.0=99.91 

Hardness  =  2.5-3.  Specific  gravity  =  15.6-19.5  ;  19.30- 
19.34  when  quite  pure  (G.  Hose).  Color  and  streak  different 
shades  of  gold-yellow,  sometimes  inclining  to  silver- white. 
Lustre  metallic.  Yery  ductile  and  malleable.  Fuses  easily, 
but  gives  no  reaction  with  fluxes.  Not  soluble  in  any  acid 
except  aqua-regia. 

Gold  is  widely  distributed  over  the  globe,  and  occurs  in 
rocks  of  various  ages,  from  the  Eozoic  to  the  cretaceous  or 
tertiary.  In  Europe  it  is  most  abundant  in  Hungary  at 
Konigsberg,  Schemnitz  and  Felsobanya,  and  in  Transylvania. 
Occurs  in  the  sands  of  the  Rhine,  the  Reuss,  the  Aar,  the 
Rhone,  and  the  Danube.  On  the  Alps,  in  Spain,  in  many 
streams  of  Cornwall,  in  Scotland,  Ireland  and  Sweden. 

The  large  fragments  found  in  sand  are  called  nuggets,  which 
are  of  considerable  size. 

The  following  table  gives  the  weight  of  the  principal  ones : 


NAME. 

WEIGHT. 

NAME. 

WEIGHT. 

184  Ibs   8  oz 

Miask  Urals 

27  Ibs. 

Ballarat      Australia     (value 

16  " 

$41,822). 

50  " 

Blanch  Barkley  Nugget  
Miask  Urals 

146  Ibs. 
96   " 

Cabarrus  County,  N.  C  
California 

37  " 

27  " 

27  " 

M 

17  " 

•272 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


The  whole  amount  of  gold  in  the  auriferous  sands  of  the 
Rhine  has  been  estimated  at  $30,000,000,  but  it  is  mostly  cov- 
ered by  soil  under  cultivation.  In  the  Urals,  they  are  prin- 
cipally alluvial  washings,  and  these  washings  seldom  yield  less 
than  65  grains  of  gold  for  4000  pounds  of  soil,  and  rarely 
more  than  120.  The  mines  in  the  Ural  became,  after  1819, 
the  most  productive  in  the  world,  until  the  discovery  of  the 
California  mines. 

Gold  is  found  in  China,  Japan,  Africa,  and  South  America. 
It  is  found  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Mexico,  Sierra  Nevada, 
and  California.  In  the  Eastern  States,  it  is  found  principally 
in  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 

12.  IRIDIUM. 

The  principal  ore  of  Iridium  is  Iridosmine. 


IRIDOSMINE. 

Composition  of  Iridosmine  is  iridium  and  osmium  in  dif- 
ferent proportions.  Some  rhodium,  platinum,  rutherium  and 
other  metals  are  usually  present. 


LOCALITIES. 

IB. 

RD. 

PT. 

Rtr. 

Os. 

Cu. 

FE. 

1   New  Grenada 

7040 

1230 

010 

1720 

—  100 

2.  Russia  (Sp.  Gr.  18.9)  .  .  . 

43.28 

5.73 

0.62 

8.49 

40.11 

0.78 

0.99  =  100 

Hardness  =  6-7.     Specific  gravity  =  19.3-21.12. 

Color  tin-white  or  steel-gray.  Lustre  metallic.  Opaque. 
Malleable  with  difficulty. 

At  a  very  high  temperature  gives  off  fumes  of  osmium. 
With  nitre  gives  the  reaction  for  osmium. 

It  is  found  with  platinum  in  the  province  of  Choco,  in 
South  America ;  in  the  Ural  Mountains ;  in  Australia.  It  is 
rather  abundant  in  the  auriferous  beach-sands  of  Northern 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


273 


California.     Also  traces  in  the  gold  washings  on  the  Bivieres 
du  Loup  and  des  Plantes,  Canada. 

Iridium  is  used  for  the  points  of  gold  pens. 


13.    IRON. 

The  principal  Iron  minerals  are  : 


NAME. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GB. 

FOKMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Native  Iron  ) 
Meteorites.       .  .  j 

4.5 

5.5—6-5 
5.5-6.5 
5.5—65 
5-5.5 
5—5.5 
3.5—4.5 
6—6.5 
6—6.5 
2 
1.5 
1.5-2 
5—5.5 
5.5-6 
3.5-4 

1—2 

3.5-4.5 
5.6 
5.5 

6 
5-5.5 

7.3—7.8 

4.9-5.2 
5.069 
4.5—5.3 
.    4-^.4 
3.6-4 
4.4—4.68 
4.83-5.2 
4.678-4.847 
1.832 
2.14 
2.58—2.68 
6.8—8.71 
6-6.4 
3.1—3.3 

3.52—3.88 

3.7-3.9 
4.5-5 

4.321—4.498 

5.4—6.5 
7.1—7.55 

(When  pure)  Fe. 
Fe  +  Co  +  Ni 
Fe,£e 
(Fe,Mn,Zn)(Fe,Mn) 
£e 
FeH 
'Fe2H3 
Fe7S8 
FeSa 
FeSa 
Fe's  +  7H 
FVs's  +  18H 
Fejp'  +  8H 
FeAsa 
Fe  (As,  S)2 
Fe  As  +  4  H 
3Fe  As  +iFeH3-t-12H 

Fe  100. 
Ni  from  1—20  per  cent. 
Fe72.4;  O  27.6. 
Fe  66  ;  Mn  16  ;  Zn  17. 
Fe  70  ;  O  30. 
¥e8.99;  H  10.1. 
FeaO386.6;  H  14.4. 
Fe60.5;  S  39.5. 
Fe46.7;  S  53.3. 
Fe46.7;  S  53.3. 
Fe25.9;  S28.8;  H  45.3. 
Fe2O3  34.2;  S  42.7;  H23.1. 
FeO43:'P*28.3;  H  28.7. 
Fe27.2;  As  72.8. 
Fe34.4;  As  48;  S  19.6. 
Fe3O3  34.7  ;  As  49.8  ;  H  15.5. 

)Fe2O342.1;  As  37,9; 
Call.l;  H8.9. 
FeO  62.1  ;  C  37.9. 
Fe  1.2-82.47  ;  Fe  1.5-50.17. 
For  FetV,  Fe  32  ;  c'r  68. 
{For  FeCb, 
Fe  21.17;  'Ob  78.83. 
Fe  9.55  ;  W  75.33  ;  Mn  15.12 
Fe5.6;  W76.2;  Mn  17.94. 

Ma^iietite    

Franklinite 

Hematite 

Golthite            

Limonite     

Pyrrhotite  
Pyrite  
Marca^ite 

Melauterite  
Copiapite  

Vivianite  

Leucopyrite  
Arsenopyrite  
Scorodite  
Pharmacosiderite  . 

Arseniosiderite... 
Sideiite 

CaaX's+4ie2AWl5H 

FeC 
(Ti,  Fe,  Mn,  Mg)2O3 
(Fe,Cr,Mg)  (&j?e$r) 

(Fe,  Mn)  (Ca,  Ta) 

j  2FeW  +  3MnW,  or 
|  4FeW  +    MnW 

Menaccanite  
Chromite  

Oolumbite 

Wolframite  

18 


274  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NATIVE    IRON. 

Native  iron  contains  various  quantities  of  other  substances 
than  iron,  principally  nickel,  associated  with  small  proportions  of 
cobalt.  The  quantity  of  nickel  may  vary  from  1  to  20^.  Pure 
metallic  iron  has  been  reported  to  be  found  in  certain  pyrites 
mines.  Proust  analyzed  several  specimens  and  pronounced 
them  to  be  pure.  The  metal  in  a  pure  state  has  also  been 
found  in  a  mine  in  Dauphine,  Auvergne,  and  Brazil,  but  such 
iron  is  very  rare.  It  is  found  native  as  grains,  disseminated 
through  volcanic  rocks,  at  the  Giant's  Causeway  and  in  Ati- 
vergne.  It  is  easy  to  prove  its  presence  by  dipping  the  rocks 
into  a  solution  of  cupric  sulphate,  when  the  rock  becomes 
coated  with  copper. 

Iron  is  usually  found  native,  however,  as  meteorites.  Me- 
teorites may  be  of  two  kinds : 

First.  Entirely  composed  of  metallic  iron,  associated  with 
chromium,  nickel,  and  sometimes  with  cobalt,  manganese,  and 
sulphur,  and  sometimes  contain  bituminous  substances.  In 
the  last  case  the  masses  are  spongy,  the  cavities  being  filled 
with  chrysolite,  or  a  substance  analogous  to  it. 

When  a  meteorite  is  polished  and  treated  with  acid,  they 
show  the  traces  of  crystallization.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  principal  meteorites : 

The  Gibbs  Meteorite,  in  Tale  College,  weighs  1,635  Ibs. 
The  Tuckson  Meteorite,  in  Smithsonian  Institute,  weighs  1,400  Ibs. 
(1.)  South  America  Meteorite  weighs  32,000  Ibs. 
(2.)      "  "  "  "       14,000  Ibs. 

The  Pallas  Meteorite  contains  crystals  of  chrysolite,  found  in  Siberia ; 
weighs  1,600  Ibs. 

Second.  Other  meteorites,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  a  stony 
character,  and  contain  the  iron  scattered  through  them  in 
bunches.  The  exterior  of  these  meteorites  is  generally  scori- 
fied and  covered  over  with  a  coating. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


275 


MAGNETITE. 

The  composition  of  Magnetite,  when  pure,  is  iron  72.4 
oxygen  27.6  (Fe  Fe) ;  or  ferric  oxide  (Fe203)  68.97,  ferrous 
oxide  (FeO)  31.03.  The  iron  is  sometimes  replaced  in  part 
by  titanium,  magnesium,  lime,  silicic  oxide,  alumina,  nickel, 
copper,  and  manganese. 


FE. 

FE. 

Ti. 

MN. 

Cu. 

Ni. 

MG. 

CA. 

Si. 

AL. 

£R. 

1.  Meiches  

21.75 

5129 

24.95 

1.75 

_ 

_ 

_ 

2.  Ytterby  

6854 

3018 

2  03 

3.  Ochreous  

66.20 

13.87 

17.00 

0.09 











Sand. 

4.  Landau  

69.27 

29.48 

0  49 

0  05 

0  gg 

0  03 

5.        "        

8690 

11.97 

_ 

— 





0.17 

0.38 

0.18 

0.22 

_ 

6.  Nickeliferous.. 

68.92 

29.32 

Tr. 

Tr. 

— 

1.76 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Tr. 

Analysis  No.  1  by  A.  Knop  (Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  cxxiii,  348). 
"         No.  2  by  J.  A.  Michael  eon  (J.  p.  Ch.,  xc,  107). 
"         No.  3  by  F.  A.  Genth  (Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  Ixvi,  277). 
"         Nos.  4  and  5,  by  Schvvalbe  (Zs.  nat.  Ver.  Halle,  xx,  198). 
"         No.  6  by  Petersen  (Jahrb.  Min.,  1867,  836). 


Hardness  =  5.5-6.5.  Specific  gravity  =  4.9-5.2  ;  5.168- 
5.180,  crystals  (Kenngott),  and  5.27  after  long  heating.  Color 
is  black  and  streak  is  black.  On  its  natural  faces  it  has  a  semi- 
metallic  lustre.  Generally  opaque,  but  in  very  thin  dendrites 
is  sometimes  transparent.  Fracture  subconchoidal,  shining. 
Brittle.  Strongly  magnetic,  sometimes  possessing  polarity. 

It  is  fusible  with  difficulty.  In  oxidizing  flame  loses  its 
influence  on  the  magnet.  It  is  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  is 
dissolved  in  hot  hydrochloric  acid. 

Magnetite  is  mostly  confined  to  crystalline  rocks,  and  is 
most  abundant  in  metamorphic  rocks,  though  found  also  in 
grains  in  eruptive  rocks.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the 
grains  are  covered  with  a  superficial  coating  of  oxide  on  the 
surface,  which  makes  them  iridescent.  Such  ore  is  called 
short-ore  by  the  miner.  The  granular  varieties,  by  the  action 
of  the  elements,  often  becomes  a  fine  black  sand.  Such  sand 
is  the  only  ore  of  iron  in  New  Zealand,  and  it  is  found  on 


276 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


the  sea-shore,  where  the  constant  action  of  the  water  has 
washed  out  the  impurities  and  made  it  quite  pure. 

The  beds  of  ore  at  Arendal,  and  nearly  all  the  celebrated 
iron  mines  of  Sweden,  consist  of  massive  magnetite ;  Danne- 
mora  and  Taberg,  in  Smaoland,  are  entirely  formed  of  it. 
Still  larger  mountains  of  it  exist  at  Kurunavara  and  Grelwara, 
in  Lapland.  Octahedral  crystals  are  found  at  Fahlun,  in 
Sweden ;  dodecahedral  crystals  occur  at  Normark,  in  Wermland. 
The  most  powerful  native  magnets  are  found  in  Siberia  and 
in  the  Harz ;  they  are  also  obtained  on  the  island  of  Elba. 

In  North  America,  it  constitutes  vast  beds.  It  occurs  in 
"New  York  in  several  counties ;  in  Maine,  in  an  epidotic  rock ; 
at  Marshall's  Island,  masses  are  strongly  magnetic.  Also  in 
Vermont,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
and  in  California,  Sierra  Co.,  abundant,  massive,  and  in  crystals. 

"  No  ore  of  iron  is  more  generally  diffused  than  the  mag- 
netic, and  none  superior  for  the  manufacture  of  iron.  It  is 
easily  distinguished  by  its  being  attracted  readily  by  the  mag- 
net, and  also  by  means  of  the  black  color  of  its  streak  or 
powder,  which  is  some  shade  of  red  or  brown  in  hematite  and 
limonite.  The  ore,  when  pulverized,  may  be  separated  from 
earthy  impurities  by  means  of  a  magnet,  and  machines  for  this 
purpose  are  in  use." 

FRANKLINITE. 

Composition,  when  pure,  is  ferric  oxide  66,  manganic  oxide 
16,  zincic  oxide  17  (Fe,  Mn,  Zn)(Fe,  Mn). 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

3FE. 

MN. 

ZN. 

Si. 

'Ai. 

1   New  Jersey 

6688 

18  17 

10  81 

0  40 

0  73  —    93  qq 

2.      "          "       
3      "          "          

64.51 
66.12 

13.51 
11.99 

25.30 
21  77 

028 

-    =  103.52 
—    —  100 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Abich  (Pogg.,  xxiii,  342). 

"         No.  2  by  Kammelsberg  (Pogg.,  cvii,  312). 
"         No.  3  by  Steffens  (B.  H.  Ztg.,  xix,  463). 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  27T 

Hardness  =  5.5-6.5.  Specific  gravity  =  5.069  (Thompson), 
5.091  (Haidinger).  Color  is  black.  Streak  dark  reddish- 
brown.  Very  slightly  magnetic.  Lustre  metallic.  Opaque. 
Fracture  conchoidal.  Brittle. 

Infusible.  With  borax  in  oxidizing  flame  gives  a  reddish- 
amethystine  bead  (manganese),  and  in  reducing  flame  changes 
to  bottle-green  (iron).  On  charcoal  with  borax  gives  the 
reactions  for  zinc  and  iron.  Soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  with 
slight  evolution  of  chlorine. 

It  is  found  in  cubic  crystals  near  Elibach,  in  Nassau;  in 
amorphous  masses  at  Altenberg,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

It  is  only  found  in  large  quantities  at  Hamburg,  New  Jersey, 
near  the  Franklin  Furnace  ;  it  is  there  found  with  red  oxide  of 
zinc  and  garnet,  in  granular  limestone;  also  at  Sterling  Hill, 
in  the  same  region,  where  it  is  associated  with  willemite  in  a 
large  vein,  in  which  cavities  occasionally  contain  crystals  from 
one  to  four  inches  in  diameter. 

Franklinite  is  used  as  an  ore  of  iron  and  zinc. 

HEMATITE. 
Composition,  when  pure,  is  iron  70,  ari<J  oxygen  30  (- 


Some  hematite  contains  titanium.     CrystalsXfrom  Kragerde 
afforded  Rammelsberg  (Pogg.,  civ,  528). 

Fe  93.63  —  ti  3.55,   Fe  3.26  =  100.44  =  Feti  +  13Fe  or 
(FeTi)203  +  13Fe. 

The  varieties  depend  on  texture  or  state  of  aggregation,  and 
in  some  cases  the  presence  of  impurities. 

VAR.  1.  Specular.  Lustre  metallic,  and  crystals  often  splen- 
dent. 

(&.)  When  the  structure  is  foliated  or  micaceous,  the  ore  is 
called  micaceous  hematite. 

VAE.  2.  Compact,  columnar,  or  fibrous.  The  masses  often 
long,  radiating  ;  lustre  submetallic  to  metallic  ;  color  brown- 
ish-red to  iron-black.  Sometimes  called  red-hematite. 

VAR.  3.  Red  Ochreous.  Red  and  earthy.  Reddle  and  red 
chalk  are  red  ochre,  mixed  with  more  or  less  clay. 


278  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

YAK.  4.  Clay  Iron-stone'  Argillaceous  Hematite.  Hard 
brownish-black  to  reddish-brown,  heavy  stone ;  often  in  part 
deep  red ;  of  submetallic  to  unmetallic  lustre ;  and  affording, 
like  all  the  preceding,  a  red  streak. 

(&.)  When  reddish  in  color  and  jasper-like  in  texture,  often 
called  jaspery-clciy  iron-stone. 

(<?.)  When  oolitic  in  structure  (consisting  of  minute  flattened 
concretions),  it  is  called  lenticular  iron-ore. 

Hardness  =  5.5-6.5.  Specific  gravity  =  4.5-5.3,  of  some 
compact  varieties  as  low  as  4.2.  Color  dark,  steel-gray  or  iron- 
black  ;  in  very  thin  particles,  blood-red  by  transmitted  light ; 
when  earthy,  red.  Streak  blood-red  or  brownish-red.  In  thin 
scales,  it  is  transparent  and  of  a  blood-red  color.  Sometimes 
slightly  magnetic,  and  occasionally  even  magnetipolar. 

It  is  infusible,  but  when  exposed  for  a  long  time  to  the 
reducing  flame,  it  gives  a  magnetic  globule.  Dissolves  with 
difficulty  in  hydrochloric  acid,  more  especially  if  it  contains 
titanium.  This  ore  is  found  in  rocks  of  all  ages.  The  specu- 
lar variety  is  mostly  confined  to  crystalline  or  metamorphic 
rocks,  but  is  also  a  result  of  igneous  action  about  some  volca- 
noes, as  at  Vesuvius. 

The  beds  that  occur  in  metamorphic  rocks  are  sometimes  of 
very  great  thickness.  In  North  America  it  is  widely  dis- 
tributed ;  occurs  in  beds  in  vast  thickness  in  rock  of  the  Eozoic 
age,  as  in  the  Marquette  region  in  northern  Michigan,  and  in 
Missouri  at  the  Pilot  Knob  and  the  Iron  Mountain ;  the 
former,  650  feet  high,  consisting  mainly  of  an  Eozoic  quartz 
rock,  and  having  specular  iron  in  the  upper  part,  the  iron  ore 
in  heavy  beds  interlaminated  with  quartz ;  the  latter  200  feet 
high,  and  consisting  at  surface  of  massive  hematite  in  loose 
blocks,  many  ten  to  twenty  tons  in  weight ;  in  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  Besides  these  regions  of  enormous  beds,  there 
are  numerous  others  of  workable  value,  either  crystallized  or 
argillaceous,  in  New  York,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina ;  a  micaceous  variety  is  schis- 
tose rocks,  containing  the  so-called  specular  schist  or  itabirite. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


279 


"  This  ore  affords  a  considerable  portion  of  the  iron  manu- 
factured in  different  countries.  The  varieties,  especially  the 
specular,  require  a  greater  degree  of  heat  to  smelt  than  other 
ores,  but  the  iron  obtained  is  of  good  quality.  Pulverized  red 
hematite  is  employed  in  polishing  metals,  and  also  as  a  color- 
ing material.  The  species  is  readily  distinguished  from  mag- 
netite by  its  red  streak,  and  from  turgite  by  its  greater  hard- 
ness and  its  not  decrepitating  before  the  blowpipe." 


LIMONITE. 

Composition,  when  pure:  ferric  oxide  85.6,  water  14.4 
(-Fe2^2)-  In  the  bog  ores  and  ochres,  sand,  clay,  phosphates, 
oxides  of  manganese,  and  humic  or  other  acids  of  organic 
origin,  are  very  common  impurities. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses  of  Limonite : 


LOCALITIES.  ' 

Fu. 

ifN. 

H. 

Si. 

$: 

At. 

Co. 

CA. 

1.  Horhausen  

82.27 



13.26 

4.50 







—    =  100.03 

2.  Salisbury,  Conn  .  .  . 

81.13 

0.60 

13.81 

3.68 

Tr. 

0.93 

Tr. 

Tr.,  S  Tr.  =  100.15 

3.  Dist.  of  Kanclern  I 
(pieolitic)  f 

71.71 

- 

8.23 

13.00 

- 

6.71 

- 

0.60  =  100  25 

4.  Dist.  of  Kandern  1 
(pisolitic)  j 

68.70 

- 

11.53 

11.80 

- 

7.47 

- 

—    =    99.50 

5.  Buffalo,  Mo. 

84.80 

— 

11.62 

2.88 

— 

0.64 

— 

—     S  0.12  =  100.06 

Analysis  No.  1  by  SchOnberg  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  xix,  107). 
"         No.  2  by  C.  S.  Rodman. 

*'         Nos.  3  and  4  by  Schenck  (Ann.  Ch.  Phann.,  xc,  123). 
"         No.  5  by  Litton  (Rep.  G.  Mo.,  1855). 

Hardness  =  5-5.5.  Specific  gravity  =  3.6-4.  Color  gen- 
erally different  shades  of  brown,  sometimes  nearly  black  in 
the  botryoidal  varieties ;  when  earthy,  brownish-yellow,  ochre- 
yellow.  Streak  yellowish-brown.  Lustre  silky,  often  sub- 
metallic,  sometimes  dull  and  earthy. 

The  varieties  are 

1.  Compact.     Submetallic  to  silky  in  lustre. 

2.  Ochreous  or  earthy,  brownish-yellow  to  ochre-yellow; 
often  impure  from  the  presence  of  clay,  sand,  etc. 


280  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

3.  Bog  Ore.     The  ore  from  marshy  places,  generally  loose 
or  porous  in  texture,  often  petrifying  leaves,  wood,  nuts,  etc. 

4.  Brown   Clay  Iron-stone,  in  compact  masses,   often  in 
concretionary  nodules,  having  a  brownish-yellow  streak,  and 
thus   distinguished  from   the  clay  iron-stone  of  the  species 
hematite   and  siderite;  it  is   sometimes  (a)  pisolilic,  or  an 
aggregation  of  concretions  of  the  size  of  small  peas  (Bohnerz, 
Germany)  ;  or  (b)  oolitic. 

Gives  off  water  and  becomes  red  when  heated.  Soluble 
in  acids. 

Limonite  is  in  all  cases  the  result  of  alteration  of  other  ores, 
through  exposure  to  moisture,  air,  and  carbonic  or  organic 
acids ;  and  is  derived  largely  from  the  change  of  pyrite,  sid- 
erite, magnetite  and  various  other  species.  It  is  therefore 
found  in  secondary  or  more  recent  deposits. 

Extensive  beds  exist  at  Salisbury  and  Kent,  Conn. ;  also  in 
Beekman,  Fishkill,  Dover,  and  Amenia,  N.  Y. ;  also  at  Lenox, 
Mass. ;  in  Vermont  at  Bennington,  Monkton,  Pittsford,  Put- 
ney and  Ripton. 

"  Limonite  is  one  of  the  most  important  ores  of  iron.  The 
pig  iron  from  the  purer  varieties,  obtained  by  smelting  with 
charcoal,  is  of  superior  quality.  That  yielded  by  bog  ore  is 
what  is  termed  cold-short,  owing  to  the  phosphorus  present, 
and  cannot  therefore  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  wire, 
or  even  of  sheet  iron,  but  is  valuable  for  casting.  The  hard  or 
compact  nodular  varieties  are  employed  in  polishing  metallic 
buttons,  etc." 

PYRITE. 

The  composition  of  Pyrite,  when  pure,  is  iron  46.7 ;  sul- 
phur 53.3  (FeS2).  There  are  several  varieties  of  pyrite. 

YAR.  1.  Ordinary,  (a)  Indistinct  crystals;  (b)  nodular, 
or  concretionary,  often  radiating  within  ;  (c)  stalactitic ;  (d) 
amorphous. 

YAR.  2.  Nickeliferous.  Schnabel  found  0.168  of  nickel 
in  a  kind  from  a  silver  mine  near  Eckerhagen.  A  pyrite  from 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


281 


the  Kearney  ore-bed,  Gouverneur,  N.  Y.,  is  similar ;  it  is  a 
pale  bronze  in  color,  and  radiated  botrjoidal.  Hardness  =  5.5. 
Specific  gravity  =  4.863.  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  II,  xv,  444.) 

YAR.  3.  Cobaltiferous.  Specimens  from  Cornwall,  Leba- 
non County,  Pa.,  afforded  J.  M.  Blake  2  per  cent,  of  cobalt. 

YAK.  4.  Cupriferous.  A  variety  from  Cornwall,  Lebanon 
County,  Pa.,  gave  J.  C.  Bootb  2.39  per  cent,  of  copper,  afford- 
ing the  formula,  (Fe,  Cu)  S2.  (Dana's  Min.,  1854,  55.) 

YAK.  5.  Stanniferous ;  Ballesterosite,  Schulz  and  Pail- 
lette (Bull.  G.  Fr.,  II,  vii,  16.)  A  kind  in  cubes,  containing 
tin  and  zinc,  occurring  in  argillite,  from  Galicia. 

YAR.  6.  Auriferous.  Containing  native  gold.  Thepyrite 
of  most  gold  regions  is  auriferous. 

YAK.  7.   Argentiferous  from  Hungary. 

YAK.  8.  Tholliferous.  The  pyrite  of  the  Rammelsberg 
mine,  near  Goslar,  Prussia,  is  especially  rich  in  thallium. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

FE. 

Ni. 

Co. 

Cu. 

SL 

AL. 

H. 

1   Inverary 

40  32 

45.73 

1.99 

1.24 

118 

—  insoluble  0.06 

2.  Corn  wall            

53-37 

44.47 

2.39 

_ 

3.  Chessy  and  St.  Bel  ... 
4   Allier          

4G.5 
52.7 

39.3 
44.2 

- 

- 

10.0 
2.5 

3.8 

0.2 
0.2 

Analysis  No.  1  by  D.  Forbes  (Phil.  Mag.,  IV,  xxxv,  178). 
"         No.  2  by  Booth  (Dana's  Min.,  1854,  55). 

Nos.  3  and  4  by  C.  Mdne  (C.  R. ,  Ixiv,  870). 

Hardness  =  6-6.5.  Specific  gravity  =  4.83-5.2 ;  5.185,  pol- 
ished crystals,  Zepharovich.  Color  on  its  natural  faces  and  on 
its  fracture  is  brass  yellow,  with  a  very  decided  metallic  lustre, 
and  is  quite  uniform.  This  color  caused  it  to  be  much  sought 
after  at  one  time  as  an  object  of  ornament.  It  was  then 
known  to  jewelers  as  marcasite.  Streak  is  greenish  or  brown- 
ish black.  Opaque.  Fracture  conchoidal,  uneven.  Brittle. 
It  strikes  fire  writh  steel  without  giving  out  any  odor.  It  can 
be  fused  in  the  flame  of  a  candle.  Heated  in  a  tube,  sulphur 
sublimes.  In  the  reducing  flame  a  residue  is  obtained  which 


282 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


attracts  the  magnet.  It  is  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  but 
dissolves  in  nitric  acid  with  evolution  of  H2S.  Pyrite  occurs 
abundantly  in  rocks  of  all  ages,  from  the  oldest  crystalline  to 
the  most  recent  alluvial  deposits.  It  usually  occurs  in  small 
cubes,  more  or  less  modified;  also  in  irregular  spheroidal 
nodules  and  in  veins,  in  clay,  slate,  argillaceous  sandstones,  the 
coal  formation,  etc.  Very  large  cubes  are  found  in  the  Cornish 
mines.  Large  octahedral  crystals  are  found  at  Persberg,  in 
Sweden.  Magnificent  crystals  come  from  Peru.  Found  as 
crystal  in  Maine  at  Conia,  Peru,  etc.,  and  massive  at  Bing- 
ham,  Brooksville.  Found  also  in  New  Hampshire,  at  Unity, 
massive.  It  is  also  found  in  Massachusetts,  Yermont,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  North  Carolina,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Canada. 

SIDERITE. 

The  composition  of  Siderite,  when  pure,  is  ferrous  oxide  62.1 
and  carbonic  oxide  37.9  (FeC).  Part  of  the  iron  oxide  is  often 
replaced  by  manganese,  and  often  by  magnesia  and  lime.  The 
principal  varieties  are: 

(1)  ORDINARY.       (a)    Crystallized.      (b)    Concretionary  = 
Spherosiderite ;  in  globular  concretions,  either  solid  or  con- 
centric, scaly,  with  usually  a  fibrous  structure,     (c)  Granular 
to   compact  massive,     (d)    Oolitic,   like    oolite  limestone   in 
structure,     (e)  Earthy,  or  stony,  impure  from  a  mixture  with 
clay  or  sand,  constituting  a  large  part  of  the  clay  iron-stone  of 
the  coal  formation  and  other  stratified  deposits. 

(2)  In  this  variety  the  bases  replace  part  of  the  iron. 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

FE. 

MN. 

MG. 

CA. 

H. 

FE. 

1    Durham 

3590 

6457 

1  15 

059 

263 

2.  Bieber  (white)  

38.41 

53-06 

4.20 

2.26 

1.12 

—  gangue  0.4S 

3.  Salzburg  

40.31 

43.86 

2.57 

10.48 

0.40 

— 

4.07 

4   L.  Laach         .... 

38  16 

6000 

1  84 

FEC. 

MNC. 

MoC. 

GAG. 

5.  Erzberg,  Styria.... 

— 

79.87 

0.16 

10.88 

11.91 

— 

— 

THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  283 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Thompson  (Min.,  i,  445). 

"         No.  2  by  Glasson  (Ann.  Ch.  Pharm.,  Ixii,  89). 

"         No.  3  by  Sommer  (Jahrb.  Min.,  1866,  455). 

"         No.  4  by  Bischof  (Rammelsburg,  Min.  Chemie,  222). 

"         No.  5  by  Sauder  (Ramm.  Min.  Ch.,  217). 

Hardness  =  3.5-4.5.  Specific  gravity  =  3.T-3.9.  Color  is 
white  when  just  taken  from  the  mine  and  when  quite  pure, 
but  it  soon  becomes  altered  in  the  air,  and  takes  a  grayish 
color,  which  sometimes  becomes  brown,  brownish-red,  or  green. 
Streak  is  white.  Translucent  to  subtranslucent.  Lustre  vit- 
reous, more  or  less  pearly.  Fracture  uneven.  Brittle. 

On  charcoal  it  blackens  and  fuses  at  4.5.  Heated  in  a  closed 
tube  gives  off  carbonous  and  carbonic  oxide,  blackens,  and 
gives  a  magnetic  globule.  In  the  oxidizing  flame  the  iron 
becomes  ferric  oxide,  in  the  reducing  flame  it  becomes  mag- 
netic. Dissolves  in  acid  in  the  cold  slowly  with  effervescence, 
but  rapidly  and  with  brisk  effervescence  with  hot  acid. 

Siderite  occurs  in  many  of  the  rock  strata,  in  gneiss,  mica 
slate,  clay  slate,  and  as  a  clay  iron-stone  in  connection  with  the 
coal  formation  and  many  other  stratified  deposits.  It  is  often 
associated  with  metallic  ores.  Siderite  is  one  of  the  most 
important  ores  of  iron. 

In  Styria  and  Carinthia  this  ore  forms  extensive  tracts  in 
gneiss.  Clay  iron-stone  occurs  in  beds  near  Glasgow.  It  is 
found  in  veins  at  New  Milford,  Conn.,  Plymouth,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  Sterling,  Mass. ;  also  in  New  York,  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania. 


284: 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


14.  LEAD, 

The  principal  Lead  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Native  lead  

1.5 

11.445 

Pb. 

Pb  =  100. 

Minium 

23 

4  6 

Pb  +  2Pb. 

Pb  —  90  66  •  O  —  &  34 

Galen  ite 

2  5  —  2  75 

7  25  —  7  77 

PbS 

Pb  —  86  6  •  S  —  13  4 

Bournonite  

2.5—3 

5.7—5.91 

3(Cu,Pb)S+SbaS3 

(Pb=42.4:  Sb^25:Cu=12.9: 
1                 S  =  19.7. 

Anglesite.  

2.75-3 

6.12-6.39 

PbS 

Pb  =  73.6;'S  =  26.4. 

Clausthalite  .... 

2.5—3 

7.6-8.8 

PbSe. 

Pb  =  72.4  ;  Se  =  27.6. 

Pyromorphite.. 

3.5—4.5 

6.5—7.1 

3Pb3£'  +  PbCl. 

j        Pb  =74.1;  P'=  15.7; 
J         Cl  =  2.6  ;  Pb  =  7.6. 

Minretite 

3  5 

7    7  25 

3Pb  'Ks  +  PbCl 

PbAs  —  90  60  •  PbCl  —  9  34 

Cerussite  

3-3.5 

6.465—6.48 

PbC. 

Pb  =  83.5  ;  C  =  16.5. 

Crocoite  

2.5—3 

5.9—6.1 

PbCr. 

Pb  -  68.9;  Cr  -  31.1. 

Stolzite  

2.75—3 

7.87—8.13 

PbW. 

Pb  =  49  ;  W  =  51. 

Wulfenite  

2.75—3 

6.05—7.01 

PbMo. 

Pb  =  61.5  ;  Mo  =  38.5. 

GALENITE. 

The  composition  of  Galenite,  when  pure,  is  lead  86.6; 
sulphur  13.4  (PbS).  It  sometimes  contains  selenium,  zinc, 
cadmium,  antimony,  copper  as  sulphides,  besides,  also,  some- 
times native  silver  and  gold,  and  even  platinum. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

PB. 

SB. 

FE. 

Cu. 

ZN. 

AG. 

1.  Bottino  

12.840 

80.700 

3.307 

1.377 

0.440 

0.024 

0.325 

2.  Argentina  

15.62 

72.90 

5.77 

1.77 

1.11 

1.33 

0.72 

Analyses  No.  1  and  2  are  by  E.  Bechi  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  II,  xiv,  60). 

Hardness  =  2.5-2.75.  Specific  gravity  =  7.25-7.7.  Color 
is  grayish-blue.  Streak  lead-gray.  In  its  fresh  fracture  it  has 
a  metallic  lustre,  which  is  quite  bright,  but  becomes  dull  on 
exposure.  Fracture  flat,  subconchoidal,  or  even.  Frangible. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


285 


In  an  open  tube  it  gives  off  sulphurous  oxide.  On  charcoal, 
decrepitates,  and  then  in  oxidizing  flame  is  roasted,  giving  off 
sulphurous  odor  and  lead  fumes,  which  coat  the  coal  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  assay  with  a  yellow  ring.  After  being 
roasted,  gives  a  globule  of  metallic  lead,  which  is  malleable. 
It  is  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  with  evolution  of  H2S. 

Occurs  in  beds  and  veins,  both  in  crystalline  and  uncrystal- 
line  rocks.  At  Freiberg,  it  occurs  in  veins  in  gneiss;  in 
Spain,  in  granite. 

Extensive  deposits  of  this  ore  exist  in  Missouri,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  and  Wisconsin.  The  productive  lead  region  is  bounded 
on  the  west,  north,  and  east  by  the  Mississippi,  Wisconsin,  and 
Rock  rivers.  Occurs  also  in  New  York,  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  etc. 

Galenite  is  the  only  important  ore  of  lead. 


CERUSSITE. 

The  composition  of  Cerussite,  when  pure,  is  oxide  of  lead 
83.5,  carbonic  oxide  16.5  (PbC). 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses  : 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

PB. 

FE. 

CA. 

1    Leadhills 

160 

8200 

2   Zellerfeld        

16.0 

81.20 

050 

0  90 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Westruub,  and  No.  2  by  Klaproth  (Beitr.,  iii,  167). 

Hardness  =  3-3.5.  Specific  gravity  =  6.465-6.480.  Colors 
are  white,  grayish-white,  and  does  not  interfere  with  an 
adamantine  lustre.  Streak  is  uncolored.  Transparent  to  sub- 
translucent.  Fracture  conchoidal.  Yery  brittle. 

Decrepitates  when  heated  in  a  small  tube,  loses  carbonic 
acid,  turns  first  yellow,  and  at  a  higher  temperature  dark  red, 
but  becomes  again  yellow  on  cooling.  After  decrepitation  on 
charcoal,  it  becomes  reduced  to  a  metallic  globule.  Soluble, 
with  effervescence.,  in  nitric  acid. 


286 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


It  is  found  in  beautiful  crystals  at  Johanngeorgenstadt ;  in 
the  Harz ;  in  England  and  Ireland. 

Found  in  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  North  Carolina,  and 
Wisconsin. 

15.    LITHIUM. 

The  principal  Lithium  mineral  is  lepidolite,  or  lithia  mica. 
Its  composition  varies. 


LOCALITIES. 

Si. 

Afc. 

FE. 

MN. 
1.40 

Mo. 

NA. 

Li. 

k. 

H. 

Cx. 

F. 
3.40 

CA. 

'P. 

1.  Rozena.. 

49.06 

33.61 

— 

0.41 

— 

3.59 

4.18 

4.24 

0.11 

2.  Cornwall 

51.70 

26.76 

— 

1.29 

0.24 

1.15 

1.27 

10.29 

— 

— 

7.12 

0.40 

0.16 

3.  Zinnwald 

46.23 

14.14 

17.97 

M. 

4.57 

- 

- 

4.21 

4.90 

0.83 

- 

8.10 

- 

- 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Gmelin ;  No.  2  by  Kammelsburg  (5tb.  Suppl.,  120) ;  No.  3  by  Gmelin. 

The  formula  for  lepidolite  is    [(K,  Li)3  (Al,  fB)2]  Si3  +  2Si. 

Hardness  =  2.5-4.  Specific  gravity  =  2.84-3.  Crystallizes 
as  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  120°.  Color,  rose-red,  violet,  gray, 
lilac,  grayish-white,  white,  or  yellow.  It  is  to  these  brilliant 
colors,  which  resemble  the  wings  of  certain  lepidoptera,  that  it 
owes  its  name.  Lustre  pearly.  Translucent.  Streak  is 
colorless. 

In  closed  tube  gives  off  water  and  reaction  for  fluorine. 
Before  the  blowpipe  fuses  with  intumescence  to  a  grayish  glass, 
coloring  the  flame  red.  Attacked  by  acids,  but  not  completely 
decomposed.  Gelatinizes,  after  fusion,  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

It  is  found  near  Oto,  in  Sweden,  grayish-white ;  in  Zunn- 
wald,  in  Bohemia,  lilac  or  reddish ;  violet  at  Rozena,  in  Mora- 
via ;  brown  in  St.  Michael's  Mount,  in  Cornwall. 

Found  in  the  United  States  at  Paris  and  Hebron,  Me. ;  and 
granular  near  Middletown,  Conn. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


287 


16.    MAGNESIUM. 

The  principal  Magnesium  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GK. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Brucite 

2.5 

2.35—2.46 

MgH 

Mg  68.97  ;  H  31  13 

Epsomite  

2.25 

1.685—1.751 

MgS'+7H 

Boracite  

j  7  (only  4  when  ) 
1      massive)      j 

2.913—2.974 

Mg,B4  +  iMg01 

Mg  26.8  ;  B  62.6  ;  MgCl  10.6. 

Magnesite  

3.5-4.5 

3—3.08 

MgC 

Mg  47.6  ;  C  54.4. 

Spinel      • 

8 

35—49 

MeA4 

Mg28-  i?e72. 

MAGNESITE. 

The  composition  of  Magnesite,  when  pure,  is  magnesia  47.6, 
carbonic  acid  52.4  (MgC).  Ferrous  oxide  often  replaces  some 
magnesia. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses  : 


C. 

FE. 

MN. 

Mo. 

CA. 

H. 

At. 

1.  Snarum  (crystallized)  — 

51.45 

0.79 

_ 

47.29 



0.47 



2. 

50.79 

2.26 

_ 

45.36 

— 

0.26 

1.12 

3.  Salzburg          "            

49.67 

'A4  3.62 

0.28 

44.53 

0.65 

- 

—  ineol.  0.58 

4.  Frankenstein  (compact).. 

50.22 

— 

0.31 

48.36 

— 

1.39 

— 

5.           "                     " 

52.10 

— 

— 

47.90 

— 

— 

— 

FERRIFEROUS  MAGNESITE. 

6.  Semmering  (white)  

50.45 

3.19 

— 

42.49 

2.18 

— 

—    C1.29 

7  Hall  (black)  

50.92 

5.00 

1.51 

42.71 



—    00.11 

8.  St.  Gothard  (yellow)  

50.32 

6.54 

0.56 

41.80 

- 

— 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Marchand  and  Scheerer  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  i,  895). 
"         No.  2  by  Munster  (Pogg.,  Ixv,  292). 

No.  3  by  Soinmer  (Jahrb.  Min.,  1866,  456). 
"         No.  4  by  Stromeyer  (Kastn.  Arch.,  iv,  432,  Unt). 
"         No.  5  by  Rainmelsberg  (Handw.,  397). 
"         No.  6  by  Hauer  (Jahrb.  G.  Eeichs,  iii,  154, 1852). 
"         No.  7  by  Stromeyer  (Schw.  J.,  li). 
"         No.  8  by  Stromeyer  (1.  c.). 

Hardness  =  3.5-4.5.     Specific  gravity  =  3-3.08  crystallized ; 
2.8  earthy ;  3-3.2  when  ferriferous. 


288  THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Color  is  white,  yellow,  or  brown.  Lustre  vitreous ;  fibrous 
varieties  sometimes  silky.  Transparent,  opaque.  Fracture 
flat  conch oidal.  The  primitive  form  is  a  rhombohedron  of 
107°  29'. 

Heated  in  a  tube,  it  gives  off  water  and  acts  like  dolomite. 
When  reduced  to  powder,  it  is  easily  dissolved  by  warm  hydro- 
chloric acid,  with  effervescence,  more  easily  than  dolomite.  It 
is  infusible,  but  glows  intensely  (Mg). 

First  discovered  by  Mitchell,  at  Hrubschtitz,  in  Moravia; 
t found  in  Silesia,  Norway,  Styria,  etc.  In  the  United  States  it 
is  found  at  Bolton,  Mass. ;  at  Barehills,  near  Baltimore,  Md. ; 
in  Pennsylvania  and  California. 

Magnesite  is  much  used  for  making  Epsom  salts. 

SPINEL 

The  composition  of  Spinel,  when,  pure,  is  magnesia  28, 
alumina  72  (MgAl).  The  magnesia  may  be  replaced  by  lime, 
iron,  manganese,  or  zinc,  separately  or  in  combination.  Alu- 
mina generally  takes  the  part  of  a  base ;  in  spinel,  however,  it 
plays  the  part  of  an  acid.  Spinel  is  not  really  a  mineral  species, 
but  is  rather  the  name  of  a  family  of  minerals,  which  are  simi- 
lar in  composition  and  crystalline  form. 

The  varieties  of  spinel  are : 

VAR.  1.  Ruby,  or  Magnesia  Spinel.  Clear  red  or  reddish. 
Transparent  to  translucent,  sometimes  subtranslucent.  Specific 
gravity  =  3.53-3.58.  Composition  MgAl,  with  little  or  no  Fe, 
and  sometimes  oxide  of  chrOmium  as  a  source  of  the  red  color. 
Varieties  are  called  (a)  spinel-ruby,  deep  red ;  (&)  balas-ruby, 
rose-red;  (c),  rubicelle,  yellow  or  orange-red;  (d)  almandine, 
violet. 

YAK.  2.  Ceylonite^  or  Iron-magnesia  Spinel.  Color  is 
dark-green,  brown  to  black,  mostly  opaque,  or  nearly  so. 
Specific  gravity  ==  3.5-3.6.  Composition,  (Mg,  Fe)  AL  or 
(Mg,  Fe)  (&,  F). 

YAR.  3.     Magnesia-lime  /Spinel.     Color  green. 

YAR.  4.    CTilorospinel,    or    Magnesia-iron    Spinel.     Color 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


grass-green,  owing  to  the  presence  of  copper.  Specific  gravity 
=  3.591-3.594.  Composition  Mg  (Al,  -Fe),  the  iron  being  in 
the  state  of  ferric  oxide. 

VAR.  5.  Picotite.  Color  black.  Contains  over  7  per 
cent,  of  oxide  of  chromium,  and  has  the  formula  (Mg,  Fe) 
(Al,  £e,  -Cr).  Lustre  brilliant.  Specific  gravity  =  4.08. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

AL. 

FT5. 

FE. 

MG. 

CA. 

Si. 

£B. 

1.  Ceylon  (red)  

6901 

0.71 

2621 

202 

1  10 

2.  Aker  (blue) 

68  94 

349 

2572 

225 

3.  Franklin,  N.  J.  (green) 

7331 

1363 

742 

5  62 

4.  Ceylon  (Ceylonite)  

57  20 

2051 

1824 

315 

5.  Ural  (Pleonaste) 

65  27 

13  97 

17  58 

2  50 

6."    u     (Chlorospinel)  .     . 

64  13 

870 

2677 

027 

—  Cu  0  27 

7.  L.  Lhery  (Picotite)..  •.  

55.34 

24.60 

10.18 

1.98 

7.90 

Analyses  No.  1  and  2  by  Abich  (Pogg.,  xxiii,  305). 
"         No.  3  by  Thompson  (Min.,  i,  214). 
"         No.  4  by  C.  Gmelin  (Jahresb.,  iv,  156). 
"         No.  5  by  Abich  (1.  c.). 
"         No.  6  by  Rose  (Pogg.,  i,  652). 
"         No.  7  by  Damour  (Bull.  G.  Soc.,  II,  xix,  413).  « 

Hardness  =  8.  Specific  gravity  =  3.5-4.1;  3.523,  Hardin- 
ger ;  3.575,  red  spinel.  Color  red  of  various  shades,  passing 
into  blue,  green,  yellow,  browTn,  and  black;  occasionally 
almost  white.  Streak  is  white.  Transparent,  nearly  opaque. 
Fracture  conchoidal.  * 

Infusible,  but  changes  color.  Soluble  in  borax  and  salt  of 
phosphorus.  Soluble  with  difficulty  in  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid.  Decomposes  by  fusion  with  hydrosodic  or  potassic  sul- 
phate. It  occurs  in  pebbles  of  beautiful  colors  at  Ceylon,  in 
Siam,  and  other  eastern  countries.  Pleonaste  is  found  at 
Candy,  in  Ceylon.  A  pale-blue  and  pearl-blue  variety  is  found 
at  Aker,  in  Sweden.  Small  black  splendent  crystals  in  the 
ancient  ejected  masses  of  Mount  Somma. 

It  is  found  from  Amity,  IN".  Y.,  to  Andover,  !N".  J.,  in  a 
granular  limestone.  It  is  also  found  in  Massachusetts  and 
Canada  West.  «  - 

19 


290 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


The  varieties  used  in  the  arts  are  usually  brought  to  this 
country  separated  from  their  gangues.  They  come  especially 
from  Ceylon  and  Birmah.  These  spinels  are  used  by  jewelers, 
and  are  called  balas-ruby ;  they  are  much  less  esteemed  than 
the  oriental  ruby. 

17.  MANGANESE, 
The  principal  Manganese  minerals  are  : 


MINERAL. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Braunite  

6—6.5 

4.75—4.82 

Mn,  Mn,  orMn 

Mn  86.95  ;  O  9.85  ;  Ba  2.25  ;  H  0.95. 

Hausmannite  .  . 

5—5.5 

4.722 

Mu2Mn. 

Mn  72.1  ;  O  27.9. 

Pyrolusite  

3—2.5 

4.82 

Mn. 

Mn  63.3  ;  O  36.7. 

Manganite  

4 

4.2-4.1 

MnH. 

Mn  62.5  ;  O  27.3  ;  H  10.2. 

Psilomelane.... 

5.6 

3.7-4.7 

j  (Ba,Mn)Mn  +  } 
|  Mn  +  nHMn.  ) 

j  •Mn  and  Mn  81.8;  O9.5;  K4.5; 
j                        H  4.2. 

Wad 

0.5—6 

3—4.26 

j  RMn  +  H.R  =  1 

j  MnMn  79,12  ;    O  8.82  ;    Ba  1.4  ; 

|  K,  Ba,  Co,  Mn.  j 

1                      H  10.66. 

Alabandite  

3.5^t 

3.95-^.04 

MnS. 

Mn63.3;  S  36.7. 

Triplite  

455 

3.44_3.8 

R2P  +  R4F. 

j  £"'32.8  ;  Fe  31.9  ;  Mn  32.6  ;  Ca  3.2. 

1  R=Fe  and  Mn  ;  R=Ca,  Mg,  Fe. 

Rhodochrosite  . 

3.5^.5 

3.4—3.7 

MnC. 

Mn61.4;  C  38.6. 

"DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  THE  OXIDES  OF  MANGANESE. — The 
oxides  of  manganese  are  very  difficult  to  distinguish  with  the 
blowpipe,  as  they  all  give  the  same  violet  bead  with  fluxes. 
Manganite  is  distinguished  by  giving  off  water,  from  braunite, 
hausmannite,  and  pyrolusite.  Wad  is  distinguished  especially 
by  its  lightness ;  for  all  the  others,  the  best  distinctions  are 
taken  from  the  color  of  their  streaks. 

Hausmannite. — Acute  octahedra  with  plane  faces;  traces 
of  cleavage ;  streak  brownish-red. 

Braunite. — Octahedra,  curved  faces  without  cleavage ;  gran- 
ular with  a  bluish-black  color ;  streak  brown. 

Pyrolusite. — Tender ;  stains  paper  black. 


THE    CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


291 


Manganite. — Black,  with  no  bluish  color ;  fracture  granular ; 
streak  brown ;  hardness  greater  than  the  others ;  gives  off 
water. 

Wad. — Light,  soils  the  fingers  chocolate  brown,  and  gives 
off  water. 

The  only  remaining  oxide  is  Psilomelane,  which  has  no 
very  distinct  characters.  It  is  generally  necessary  to  make  a 
chemical  test  for  Ba,  by  treating  with  HCl  and  then  with  S. 
Its  hardness  is  generally  greater  than  that  of  the  other  oxides." 

PYROLUSITE. 

The  composition,  when  pure,  is  manganese  63.3 ;  oxygen 
36.7  (Mn). 


MN'MN. 

0. 

BA. 

Si. 

H. 

PE. 

CA. 

Ai. 

1   Elgersberg     

84.05 

11.78 

0.53 

0.51 

1.12 

2  Dmenan 

87.0 

11.6 

1.2 

0.8 

5.8 

1.3 

0.3 

0.3 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Turner  (Edinb.  Trans.,  1828). 

"       No.  2,  by  Scheffler  (Arch.  Pharm.,  xxxv,  260). 

Hardness  =  2-5.5.  Specific  gravity  =  4.82  (Turner).  Color 
iron-black  or  dark  steel-gray.  Lustre  metallic.  Opaque.  Its 
fracture  is  irregular  and  unequal.  Streak  black.  Crystallizes 
as  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  93°  40'. 

Pyrolusite  is  infusible,  not  even  giving  off  water.  With 
fluxes  gives  the  reactions  for  manganese.  Hydrochloric  acid 
dissolves  it  with  evolution  of  chlorine.  When  it  contains 
rhodonite,  gelatinous  silica  is  deposited. 

This  ore  is  extensively  worked  at  Elgersberg,  near  Ilmenan, 
and  other  places  in  Thuringia ;  at  Norderehrensdorf,  near 
Mahrish ;  Traban,  in  Moravia,  which  place  affords  many  hun- 
dred tons  of  ore ;  at  Plateau,  in  Bohemia,  and  elsewhere. 

Occurs  in  the  United  States  with  psilomelane ;  abundantly 
in  Vermont,  at  Brandon,  Irasburg,  Bennington,  etc.,  both 
crystallized  and  massive ;  in  Con  way,  Mass.,  in  a  vein  of 


292 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


quartz ;  at  Plainfield  and  West  Stockbridge,  Mass. ;  at  Win- 
chester, N.  H. ;  at  Salisbury  and  Kent,  Conn.,  forming  velvet- 
like  coating  on  limonite.  Found  also  in  California,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia. 

Pyrolusite  and  manganite  are  the  most  important  ores  of 
manganese.  Pyrolusite  is  used  extensively  in  glass  works,  for 
making  bleaching  powders  and  also  for  the  manufacture  of 
oxygen. 


MANGANITE. 

Composition  of  Manganite,  when  pure,  is  sesquioxide  of 
manganese  89.8  (=Mn  62.5,  O  27.3),  water  10.2  (MnH). 


MN. 

0. 

H. 

FE,  BA  AND  LOSS. 

1   Hefeld         ...          

62.86 

27.64 

950 

2   Cheverie     

86.81 

10.00 

Gangue  1.14—2  05 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Gmelin  (Ib.,  xlii,  208). 

No.  2,  by  How  (Phil.  Mag.,  IV,  xxxi,  166). 


Hardness  =  4  ;  Specific  gravity  =  4.2-4.4.  Color  dark- 
brown  or  iron-black.  Streak  reddish-brown  to  nearly  black, 
darker  than  limonite.  Lustre  semi-metallic.  Opaque ;  minute 
splinters,  sometimes  brown  by  transmitted  light.  Fracture 
uneven.  Crystallizes  as  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  99°  40',  with 
an  easy  cleavage  parallel  to  the  brachypinacoid,  and  another 
more  difficult,  parallel  to  the  prism.  It  is  usually  well  crys- 
tallized. In  a  tube  it  gives  off  water  when  heated,  and  is 
then  infusible;  this  distinguishes  it  from  the  other  oxides. 
With  fluxes  gives  the  reaction  for  manganese.  In  acids, 
even  before  calcination,  it  is  dissolved  and  gives  off  chlorine. 

Manganite  occurs  at  Ilefeld,  in  the  Harz ;  Undennes,  in 
Sweden ;  Christiansand,  in  Norway ;  and  Cornwall,  etc.  It  is 
found  also  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


293 


WAD. 
The  composition  of  Wad  varies  as  follows : 


LOCALITIES. 

MN.    m. 

O. 

FK. 

BA. 

Cu. 

H. 

1.  Devonshire  

79.12 

8.82 

— 

1.4 

— 

10.66 

2.  Vicdessos  

69.8      — 

11.17 

— 

— 

— 

12.4       Al  7.0 

3   Hillsdale  N.  Y.  . 

68.50 

1675 

11.50     insol  325 

4   Skidberg 

6616 

2  70 

15  34 

j  Co  12.07,   Si  0.92,  M  0.75, 

(CaO.59,    MgO.28,   K  0.28. 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Turner  (Edinb.  J.  Sci.,  N.  S.,  ii,  213). 
"         No.  2  by  Berthit*  (Ann.  Ch.  Phys.,  li,  19). 
"         No.  3  by  Beck  (Rep.  Min.  N.  Y.,  55). 
"         No.  4  by  Bahr  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  liii,  308 ;  fr.  Oefv.  Ak.  Stockh.,  240, 1850). 


Hardness  =  0.5-6.  Specific  gravity  =  3-4.26.  Color  is 
dull-bluish,  or  brownish-black,  or  reddish-brown.  It  is  often 
very  light  and  soils  the  fingers. 

In  a  closed  tube,  wrad  when  heated  yields  water.  Loses 
oxygen  by  ignition.  Gives  the  reaction  for  manganese.  Yields 
chlorine  with  hydrochloric  acid.  The  varieties  containing 
cobalt  and  copper  react  for  these  metals. 

When  wad  contains  cobalt,  it  is  called  asbolite  or  earthy 
cobalt. 

When  wad  contains  copper,  it  is  called  lampadite  or  cupre- 
ous  manganese. 

Wad,  or  bog-manganese,  is  found  abundant  in  Columbia 
and  Dutchess  counties,  N.  Y. ;  at  Austerlitz,  Canaan  Centre, 
and  elsewhere  occurs  as  marsh  deposits.  Also  found  in  New 
Hampshire. 

This  ore,  when  abundant,  is  valuable. 


294 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


18.    MERCURY. 

The  following  are  the  principal  Mercury  minerals : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Native  Mercury  

— 

13.568 

Hg 

100 

Cinnabar  

2-2.5 

8.998 

HgS 

Hg  86.2  ;    S  13.8. 

Calomel  

1—2 

6.482 

Hg2Cl 

Hg84.9;    C115.1. 

CINNABAR. 

The  composition  of  Cinnabar,  when  pure,  is  mercury 
and  sulphur  13.8  (HgS  or  Hg3S3). 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

HG. 

1   Neutnarktel             

14.25 

85.00  —  99.25 

17.5 

78.4,  ¥e  1.7,  Al  0.7,  Ca  1.3,  ifn  0.2. 

3   California 

11.38 

69.36,  Fe  1.23,  Ca  1.40,  Al  0.61,  Mg.  0 

49,  Si  14.30. 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Klaproth  (Beitr.,  iv,  14). 

"         No.  2  by  Jobn  (John's  Ch.  Tint.,  i,  252). 
"         No.  3  by  A.  Bealey  (J.  Ch.  Soc.,  iv). 

Hardness  =  2-2.5.  Specific  gravity  =  8.998.  Color  is 
cochineal-red,  inclining  to  violet.  Streak  characteristic  ver- 
milion-red. When  it  is  impure,  the  color  is  often  black,  but 
the  streak  is  always  red.  It  absorbs  light  easily,  which  often 
makes  it  opaque.  It  is  the  most  refrangent  of  all  known 
bodies.  Sectile.  Polarization  circular.  Ordinary  refraction, 
2.854;  extraordinary,  3.201  (Descl.). 

On  charcoal  it  volatilizes  without  residue.  In  a  tube  gives 
a  red  sublimate.  It  is  not  attacked  by  acids,  and  is  the  only 
sulphide  which  is  not  acted  on  by  aqua-regia. 

The  Idria  mines  are  in  the  carboniferous  formation ;  those 
of  New  Almaden,  California,  in  partially  cretaceous  or  tertiary 
beds.  It  is  found  in  Japan,  China,  Chili,  Peru,  etc. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


295 


Cinnabar  is  the  principal  ore  of  mercury,  from  which  it  is 
obtained  by  sublimation.  It  is  sometimes  ground  and  used  as 
a  pigment,  called  vermilion. 


19.    NICKEL 

The  principal  Nickel  minerals  are  : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Millerite. 

3—3.5 

4.6—5.65 

NiS 

Ni  64.9  ;  S  35.1. 

Niccolite  

5—5.5 

7.33-7.671 

NiAs 

Ni  44.1  ;  As  55.9. 

Ulmannite  

5.5—5 

6.2—6.51 

NiS  +  Ni  (Sb,As)a 

N127.7;  Sb57.2;  S  15.1. 

Annabergite.. 

— 



Ni3As  +  8H 

Ni37.2;  As  38.6;  H  24.2. 

.• 

Zaratite 

3    3  25 

2  57    2  693 

NiC  +  2NiH  +  4H 

Ni  594;     C  11.7;  H  28.9. 

Chloanthite,  or  the  niccoliferous  smaltite,  is  sometimes  very 
valuable  for  nickel,  as  the  cobalt  is  nearly  absent  in  some 
specimens. 

MILLERITE. 

The  composition  of  Millerite,  when  pure,  is  nickel  64.9, 
sulphur  35.1  (NiS). 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

Ni. 

Co. 

FE. 

Cu. 

1    Saalfeld                 

35.79 

61.34 

1.14  -  100 

2   Gap  Mine  Pa 

35  14 

6308 

0.58 

0.40 

0.87,  gangue  0.28  -  100.35. 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Rammelsberg  (1st  Suppl.,  67). 

No.  2  by  Genth  (Ann.  J.  Sci.,  II,  xxxiii,  195). 

Hardness  =  3-3.5.  Specific  gravity  =  4.6-5.65 ;  5.65  fr. 
Saalfeld  Eammelsberg;  4.601  fr.  Joachirnethal  Kenngott. 
Color  brass  yellow,  and  often  with  an  iridescent  tarnish. 
Streak  bright.  Lustre  metallic.  Brittle. 

In  an  open  tube  gives,  when  heated,  sulphurous  fumes. 
Fuses  to  a  globule  on  charcoal  before  the  blowpipe ;  gives  a 


296 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


magnetic  globule  in  the  reducing  flame.     With  fluxes  most 
varieties  show  traces  of  copper,  cobalt,  and  iron. 

It  is  found  in  cavities  at  Bohemia,  Przibram,  Hummelfahrt 
mine  near  Freiberg,  Saxony,  Cornwall,  etc.  It  is  found  at 
the  Sterling  mine,  Antwerp,  ET.  S. ;  also  at  the  Gap  mine, 
Lancaster  Co.,  Pa. 

N I CCO  LITE. 

The  composition  of  Mccolite,  when  pure,  is  nickel  44.1 ; 
arsenic  55.9  (NiAs  or  Ni3As3). 


As. 

Ni. 

FE. 

PB. 

Co. 

SB. 

S. 

Cu. 

No.  1  

54.73 

44.21 

0.34 

0.32 

0.40 

No.  2  

54.05 

43.50 

0.45 

0.32 

0.05 

2.18 

—  gangueO.20. 

No.  3  

52.71 

45.37 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0.48 

1.44 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Stroineyer  (Gel.  Anz.  GOtt.,  1817,  204). 

No.  2,  by  Ebelmen  (Ann.  d.  M.,  IV,  xi,  55). 
11        No.  3,  by  Schnabel  (Rammelsberg,  4th  Suppl.,  122). 


Hardness  =  5-5.5.  Specific  gravity  =  7.33-7.671.  Color 
is  a  light  copper-red,  which  is  very  characteristic.  The  inten- 
sity of  the  color  is,  however,  variable,  and  is  subject  to  tarnish  ; 
those  specimens  containing  antimony  are  much  darker,  while 
those  containing  arsenic  are  paler.  Streak  is  pale  brownish- 
black.  Lustre  metallic.  Opaque.  Fracture  uneven.  Brittle. 

On  charcoal  it  gives  off  a  garlic  odor  with  white  vapors,  if  it 
contains  arsenic;  when  antimony  is  alone  present,  there  is 
only  a  coating  of  antimony  without  any  odor.  With  fluxes 
gives  reactions  for  iron,  cobalt,  and  nickel.  Soluble  in  nitro- 
hydrochloric  acid. 

It  is  found  in  the  Saxon  mines  of  Annaberg,  Schneeberg, 
etc. ;  found  also  in  Styria,  Allemont,  Cornwall  sometimes ; 
Scotland,  Chili,  and  Argentine  provinces.  It  is  also  found 
at  Chatham,  Conn.,  in  gneiss  associated  with  smaltite. 

Niccolite  is  a  very  important  ore  of  nickel. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


297 


20.   PHOSPHORUS. 

The  principal  Phosphorus  mineral,  or  minerals  containing 
phosphorus,  are : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Schreibersite  

6.5 

7.01—7.22 

P,  Fe,  Ni,  C. 

(     One  sample  yielded 
•{  P7.26;  Fe  87.20;  M4.24. 

(         C  undetermined. 

f     One  analysis  gave 

Cryptolite 

C          4.6 
I     Cryptolite. 

fCe,    P*  (the 
I  Ce  replaced 

|   P  27.37  ;  Ce,  Di  73.70  ; 

]          4.78 
[Phosphocerite. 

1  in    part    by 
IK). 

1  Fe  1.51  (Cryp.);  P  29.66; 

Ce,  Di  67.38;    Fe  2.95 
^  (Phosphocerite). 

P'40.92;  Ca  48.43=89.35; 

Apatite 

1  5.  (Sorne- 

2.92—3.25 

j  Ca3  "P  +  ICa 

Cl  6.81;     Ca  3.84  or  'p' 

(  times  4.5) 

1     (Cl,  Fl). 

42.26  ;  Ca  50=92.26  ;  Ca 

,'p";  F3.77;  Ca  3.97. 

Pseudomalachite  .  .  . 

4.5—5 

4—4.4 

•<     Analyses 
(  vary  much. 

IP'  24.55;  Cu  67.25;  H  8.20. 
1  Analysis  of  one  sample. 

Borickite  

3.5 

2.696—2.707 

j    (i^,Ca3)s 

j  "P  20.49  ;  Fe  52.29  ;  Ca 

(     P2+15H. 

|          8.16  ;  H  19.06. 

Callainite 

35—4 

2.5—2.52 

'AI'P+SH 

P'  42.39;  Al  30.75;  H  26.86. 

Phosphorgummite 
or  Gummite 

j-    2.5—3 

3.9—4.20 

{  Impurities- 

rW  72.0;  Mn  0.05;  Ca  6.00; 

]  Si  4.26  ;P*  2.30  ;H  14.75; 

IP,  As,  tr. 

Pyromorphite  

3.5-4.5 

6.5-7.1 

1    3Pb3P  + 
1       Pb  Cl. 

(  Pb  74.1  ;'p"'  15.7;  C12.6; 
}                Pb  7.6. 

APATITE. 

The  composition  of  Apatite  is  phosphate  of  lime  with 
chloride  or  fluoride  of  lime  or  both;  Ca3P'  +  £Ca(Cl,F);  or 
[T91TCa+11QCa(Cl,F)]loP3  =  for  chlorapatite.  Phosphoric  acid 
40.92,  lime  48.43  (=  89.35  P,Ca),  chlorine  6.81,  calcium  3.84 
(=10.65  Cl,Ca);  and  tor  fluorapatite,  P  42.26,  Ca  50.00 
(=  92.26  P,Ca),  F  3.7T,  Ca  3.9T  (=  7.74  F,Ca) ;  and  the  analysis 
should  give  for  the  former  P  40.92,  Ca  53.81 ;  Cl  6.81 ;  for  the 
latter,  "P  42.26,  Ca  55.56,  F  3.77  (Eammelsberg). 


298  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

The  following  analyses  are  bj  G.  Rose  (Pogg.,  ix,  185) : 


1.  SNARUM. 
NORWAY. 

2.   MURCIA, 

SPAIN. 

3.  ARENDAL, 
NORWAY. 

4.  GREINER. 
TYROL, 

Phosphate  of  Lime  

91.13 

92.066 

92.189 

92.16 

Chloride  of  Calcium 

428 

0885 

0801 

0  15 

Fluoride  of  Calcium        .... 

459 

7049 

7.01 

7.69 

Specific  Gravity  

3.174 

2.235 

3.194 

3.175 

The  following  are  a  few  other  analyses : 


p': 

£E. 

MG. 

CA. 

CL. 

F. 

H. 

1.  Snarum  

41.54 

1.79 

_ 

53.46 

2.66 

Not  deter. 

— 

2.  KragrQe,  white... 

41.25 

0.29 

- 

53.84 

4.10 

•• 

j  0.42,  A4  0.38  ;  alk.  0.17  ; 
1            insol.  0.82. 

3.       "        red  

41.81 

1.05 

— 

54.59 

1.03 

" 

0.83,  alk.  0.30;  insol.  1.10. 

4.  Pargas,  blue  

40.76 

0.81 

— 

5474 

Tr. 

it 

—    P,  Fe,  A10.99. 

5.  Miask,  yellow  

42.08 

0.17 

— 

55.17 

Tr. 

" 

0.16 

6   Staffel 

34.48 

6.42 

0.16 

45.79 

3.45 

(2.45,  Al  1.08;    Si  4.83; 

|C1.51;  Na042;  K  0.58. 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Weber  (Pogg.,  Ixxxiv,  306). 

"       No.  2  and  3,  by  VOlcker  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  Ixxv,  384). 
"       No.  4,  by  Arppe  (An.  Finska  Min.,  4). 
"       No.  5,  by  Rath.  (Pogg.,  xcvi,  331). 
No.  6,  by  Foster  (Ib.,  1866,  716). 

Hardness  =  4.5-5.  Specific  gravity  =  2.92-3.25.  Apatite 
is  generally  found  in  large  crystals,  which  are  yellow,  green, 
blue,  or  violet.  The  colors  are  never  very  bright.  It  may 
also  be  white,  red,  flesh-red,  and  brown.  Lustre  vitreous, 
inclining  to  subresinous.  Streak  is  white.  Transparent, 
opaque.  In  the  white  varieties,  there  is  sometimes  a  bluish 
opalescence  in  the  direction  of  the  vertical  axis.  Cross  frac- 
ture conchoidal  and  uneven.  Brittle. 

Apatite  fuses  with  difficulty  on  the  edges  at  4.5,  coloring 
the  flame  red  (Ca).  When  moistened  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
heated,  colors  the  flame  pale  bluish-green  (P).  It  is  soluble  in 
hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids,  without  residue,  when  CaFl  is 
absent.  It  is  sometimes  phosphorescent  in  the  dark,  especially 
in  powder. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


299 


It  is  found  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Switzerland,  Bavaria,  Bo- 
hemia, and  in  Cornwall. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  found  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, and  Delaware.  Also  found  in  Canada. 

A  compact  variety,  resembling  impure  limestone,  has  been 
found  near  Charleston,  S.  C.  It  is  used  in  making  fertilizers. 

PYROMORPHITE. 

The  composition  of  Pyromorphite  is  phosphoric  acid  15.7, 
oxide  of  lead  74.1,  chlorine  2.6,  lead  7.6  =  phosphate  of 
lead  89.8,  chloride  of  lead  10.2  =  100.  [3Pb3  P  +  PbCl,  or 
(&  ^b  +  iV  PbCl)  i  o  P]-  Part  of  the  lead  is  often  replaced  by 
lime,  part  of  the  chloride  of  lead  replaced  by  fluoride  of  cal- 
cium, and  arsenic  acid  part  of  the  phosphoric  acid. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses  : 


LOCALITIES. 

PS;?": 

PBCL. 

CAF. 

CA;P': 

1.  Bleistadt  (brown  crystallized)  
2.  Krausberg  (°reen)         .... 

87,38 
89  16 

10.23 

10  47 

0.07 

0.86,  Fe3P  0.77. 

3.  Beresovsk  (yellowish-°Teen^  

89  18 

994 

Fe  <?r  0  59  V  tr 

4.  Leadhills  (orange-red)  

Polysphoerite    (with  much   phosphate 
of  lime). 

5.  Freiberg  (brown)  

90.09 
7702 

9.91 
10  84 

1  09 

11  05 

CONTAINING  AKSENIC  ACID. 
6.  Zschopau  (white)  

ft 

[15.17] 

As. 

230 

PB. 

7244 

PBCL. 

1009 

7  Badenweiler  (wax-yellow) 

16  11 

0  66 

77  46 

Ca  2  40  Cl  2  64 

8.                       (dark-orange).    .     .  . 

1588 

069 

7745 

Ca  2  45  Cl  undet 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Lerch  (Ann.  Ch.  Pharm.,  xlv,  328). 

"  No.  2  by  Sandberger  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  xlvii,  462). 

"  No.  3  by  Struve  (Koksch.  Min.  Russl.,  iii,  42). 

"  No.  4  by  WOhler  (Pogg.,  iv,  161). 

"  No.  5  by  Kersten  (Schw.  J.,  Ixi,  1 ;  Pogg.,  xxvi,  489). 

"  No.  6  by  WOhler  (Pogg-,  iv,  161). 

"  Nos.  7  and  8  by  Seidel  (Jahrb.  Min.,  1864,  222). 

Hardness  =  3.5-4.  Specific  gravity  =  6.5-7.1,  mostly  when 
without  lime ;  5-6.5,  when  containing  lime.  The  colors  are 
very  variable,  green,  yellow,  brown,  or  white,  and  are  depend- 


300 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


ent  upon  the  composition.  Streak  white,  sometimes  yellowish* 
Lustre  resinous.  Subtransparent,  subtranslucent.  Fracture 
subconchoidal,  uneven.  Brittle. 

Pyromorphite  occurs  principally  in  veins,  and  accompanies, 
other  ores  of  lead. 

It  is  found  in  Brittany,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  at  Sonnenwerbel 
near  Freiberg,  and  in  Siberia.  It  is  found  green  and  brown 
at  Cornwall,  gray  at  Devon,  green  and  yellow  at  Derbyshire, 
golden-yellow  at  Cumberland,  red  and  orange  formerly  in 
Scotland,  clove-brown  and  yellowish-green  at  Wicklow. 

In  the  United  States  it  has  been  found  at  the  Perkionen 
lead  mine  near  Philadelphia,  and  very  fine  at  Phenixville; 
also  in  Maine,  New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  Bristol,  Conn. 
Good  crystallizations  of  bright  green  and  gray  colors  have 
been  found  in  Davidson  County,  !N".  C.  It  is  a  valuable  ore 
of  lead. 

21.    PLATINUM. 

The  principal  Platinum  minerals  are  : 


MINERAL. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GE. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Platinum  (Platina). 

4-^.5 

16-19 

Pt+Fe,  Ir,  OB,  etc. 

j     Ores  of  Pt  usually  contain 
|  Pt  9(#,  insol.  10#,  Ir  fcg,  Ku  2#. 

Platiniridium  

6—7 

22.6-23 

j        Pt,  Ir  +        I 
)Pd,Rh,Cu,etc.  f 

Pt  19.64-55.44 

PLATINUM. 

The  composition  of  Platinum,  or  Platina,  is  platinum  com- 
bined with  iron,  iridium,  osmium,  and  other  metals. 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses  : 


LOCALITIES. 

PT. 

An. 

FE. 

IR. 

RH. 

PD. 

Cu. 

H. 

Os. 

SAND. 

1.  Ural  

80.8? 



10.92 

0.06 

4.44 

1.30 

2.30 

0.11 





2.  Choco,S.A. 

86.16 

— 

8.03 

1.09 

2.16 

0.35 

0.40 

1.91 

— 

0.97,  Mn  0.10. 

3.  California  . 

79.85 

0.55 

4.45 

4.20 

0.65 

1.95 

0.75 

4.95 

0.05* 

2.60 

4,        " 

76.50 

1.20 

6.10 

0.85 

1.95 

1.30 

1.25 

7.55 

1.25* 

1.50,  Pb(?)  0.55. 

«*        " 

63.30 

0.30 

6.40 

0.70 

1.80 

0.10 

4.25 

[22.55] 

— 

•     Hg  0.60. 

The  loss,  with  some  osmium. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


301 


Analysis  No.  1  by  Osann  (Fogg.,  viii,  505 ;  xi,  411 :  xiii,  283 ;  xiv,  329 ;  xv,  158). 
"         No.  2  by  Svauberg  (Institut,  ii,  294). 

"         Nos.  3  and  4  by  St.  C.  Deville  and  Debray  (Ann.  Ch.  Phys.,  in,  Ivi,  449). 
"         No.  5  by  Kromayer  (Arch.  Pharm.,  II,  ex,  14 ;  Jahresb.,  1862,  707). 

Hardness=4-4:.5.  Specific  gravity  =  16-19, 17.862, 17.759, 
two  masses  (Gr.  Eose) ;  17.200,  a  smaller ;  17.108,  small  grains 
(Breith);  17.608,  a  mass  (Breith) ;  17.60,  large  mass  from 
Nischne  Tagilsk.  Sokoloff.  Color  and  streak  are  whitish 
steel-gray ;  shining.  Lustre  metallic.  Opaque.  Ductile. 
Fracture  hackly.  Occasionally  magneti-polar.  When  crys- 
tallized, it  is  found  in  cubes  and  octahedra.  Platinum  was 
found  in  pebbles  and  small  grains  in  the  alluvial  deposits  of 
the  River  Pinto,  in  South  America.  It  was  first  discovered  in 
1822,  in  Russia ;  it  occurs  at  Nischne  Tagilsk  and  Gorobla- 
godat  in  the  Ural  in  alluvial  deposits.  Russia  affords  annually 
about  800  cwt.  of  platinum,  which  is  nearly  ten  times  the 
amount  from  Brazil,  St.  Domingo  and  Borneo,  which  last 
place  furnishes  600  to  800  Ibs.  annually.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  sands  of  the  Rhine ;  in  Ireland,  in  Honduras,  in  traces 
with  gold  in  Rutherford  Co.,  N.  C. ;  at  St.  Francois  Beauc, 
etc.,  Canada  East. 

The  prominent  masses  of  Platinum  are : 

Weight. 
Mass  brought  by  Humboldt  from  S.  A.  (Berlin  Museum). .  1.088  grains. 

"          "        from  Coudoto  (Madrid  Museum) 11.641       " 

"          "          "     Ural  (weighed  10T9e  Russian  pounds)..  11. 57    Ibs.  Troy. 
"    in  Demidoff  Cabinet,  the  largest  yet  obtained 21  " 

22.   POTASSIUM. 

The  principal  Potassium  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HARD- 
NESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Kalinite  

2—2.5 

1.75 

KS"+  Al  s',  +  24H. 

KS  18.4  ;AJ'S  36.2;  H  45.5. 

Sylvite  

2 

1.9-2 

KC1. 

K  52.5  ;  Cl  47.5. 

Carnallite  

KCl+2MgCl  +  12H. 

KC1  26.88;  MgCl  34.20;  H  38.92. 

Nitre  

2 

1  937 

K& 

K46.6-  N  53.4. 

Taylorite  

2 

(|KO  +  £NH«O)SO,. 

KO47:  NH.O5.2;  SO  3  47.8. 

.Aphthilalite.... 

3—3.5 

1.731 

KS. 

K  54.1  ;  S  45.9. 

302 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


NITRE. 

The  composition  of  nitre,  when  pure,  is  potash  46.6  ;  nitric 
acid  53.4  (K  N).  Klaproth  obtained  for  an  African  specimen 
(Beitr.,  i,  317)  nitrate  of  potash  42.55,  sulphate  of  lime  25.54, 
chloride  of  calcium  0.20,  carbonate  of  lime  30.40. 

A  nitre  crust  from  the  vicinity  of  Constantine,  Algeria, 
aiforded  K  N  86.00,  Cafsl  and  Mgti  3.00,  NaCl  6.00,  H  3.50, 
insol.,  etc.,  1.50  (Boussingault).  Hardness  =  2.  Specific 
gravity = 1.93T.  Crystallizes  as  a  right  rhombic  prism  118°  50'. 
It  is  usually  white  and  transparent,  or  at  least  translucent. 
Streak  white.  Lustre  vitreous.  Taste  saline  and  cooling. 

Mtre  deflagrates  on  charcoal,  coloring  the  flame  violet  (K). 
Soluble  in  its  Aveight  of  cold  and  half  its  weight  of  warm 
water.  It  is  not  altered  by  exposure. 

Nitre  is  found  generally  in  minute  needle-form  crystals  and 
crusts  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  on  walls,  rocks,  etc.  It 
forms  abundantly  in  certain  soils  in  Spain,  Egypt  and  Persia,, 
especially  during  hot  weather  succeeding  rains.  It  is  found  in 
Madison  Co.,  Kentucky ;  it  is  found  scattered  through  the 
loose  earth  covering  the  bottom  of  a  large  cave ;  also  in  other 
caverns  in  the  Mississippi  valley ;  also  in  Tennessee.  Nitre 
is  the  saltpetre  of  commerce. 

23.  SILICON. 

The  principal  Silicon  minerals : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Quartz  

7 

2.5—2.8 

Si. 

Si  46.67  ;  O  53.33. 

Opal  

5.5-6.5 

1.9—2.3 

Si  +  xH. 

H  =  3  —  21*. 

Wallastonite.  . 

4.5—5 

2.78—2.9 

CaSi. 

Ca  48.3  ;  8  51.7. 

Pyroxene  

5-6 

3.23-3.5 

fRSi(RmaybeCa,1 
Mg,  Fe,  Mn,  Zn,  I 
[    NaandK.           J 

Malacolite  

— 

3.2—3.38 

(CaMg)Si. 

Ca  25.8  ;  Mg  18.5  ;  Si  55.7. 

Sahlite  

— 

3.25-3.4 

(CaMgFe)Si. 

Ca24.9;  Mgl3.4;  Si  53.7. 

OF  THE 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 
THE  PRINCIPAL  SILICON  MINERALS— (Continued.} 


soa 


MINERAL. 

HABDNESS. 

SP.  Gr. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Hedenbergite.  . 

— 

3.5—3.58 

(iCa  +  iFe)Si. 

Fe  27.01;  Ca  22.95;  Si  47.78. 

Augite  

- 

3.25—3.5 

(CaMgFe)  (SIM!). 

f  Si  44.4—  51.79;   Ca  14-24; 
JMg  8.75-21.  11;  Fe  4.24- 
[      13.02  ;  'M  3.38-8.63. 

Rhodomite  .  .  . 

5.5—6.5 

3.4—3.68 

MnS'i. 

Mn541;  Si  45.9. 

Spodamene... 

6.5—7 

3.13—3.19 

(Li3  +  &)Si«. 

Li  6.4;  M  29.4;  Si  64.2. 

Petalite  

6—6.5 

2.39-2.5 

[(LiNa),+AYjSi8+8Si. 

j   Li  33;  Na  1.2;  Al  17.8; 

(                  Si  77.7. 

iRSi   (R    may  bel 

Amphibole  .  .  . 

5—6.5 

2.9-3.4 

Na,  K,  Ca,  Mg,  L 



Fe,  and  Mn).      J 

TremdUe  .... 

5—6.5 

2.9—3.1 

(CaMg)Si. 

(  Ca  12-15  ;   Mg  24-26  ; 
(              Si  57—59. 

Hornblende  .  . 

- 

3.65—3.47 

(  Three     varieties,  ) 
•<    depending  on  the  > 
(   quantity  of  iron.  ) 

f    CalO—  14;  Mg  5—  23; 
J     M  5—15;   Fe  3—29; 
[               Si  40—55. 

Actinolite  
Beryl        .     .  . 

7.5-8 
6—7 

3—3.2 

2.63—2.76 
3.33—3.5 

(CaMgFe)Si. 

(iBe3  +  W8i,. 
(MgFe)aSi. 

j      Si  55—  59;  Mg  9-24; 
{       Ca  9-21  ;  Fe  3—11. 
Be  14.1  ;  Al  19.1  ;  Si  66.8. 
Mg  50.28  ;  Fe  9.36  ;  Si  40.75. 

Chrysolite  

Willemite  

5.5 

3.89—4.18 

Zn2Si. 

Zn  72.9  ;  Si  27.1. 

PheDacite  
Garnet 

7.5—8 
6.5-7.5 

2.96—3 
3.15-^.31 

3.7-3.76 

Be2Si. 

(R3)2Si3  +  RJ3i3. 

j[HMgCaFeMn)3| 
"I       +  t^]aSi,.       f 

Be  45.8;  Si  54.2. 

|-Mg  13.43;    'A!  22.47;    Ca 
j  6.53  ;   Fe  9.29  ;   Mn  6.27  ; 
[                Si  42.45. 

Pyrope  

Gro3sularite  .  . 

— 

3.4-3.7 

aCa,iiJ),Sl,. 

Ca  37.2  ;  Al  22.7  ;  Si  40.1. 

Almandite.... 

— 

— 

(iFe3  +  ^Al)aSi3. 

F*  43.3  ;  M  20.5  ;  Si  36.1. 

Spessartite.... 

- 

3.7-4.4 

[i(MnFe)3  +  ^ti]2Sis. 

{Mn  30.96;   Fe   14.93;  Al 
18.06;  Si  35.83. 

Ouvarovite.... 
Zircon 

7.5 

7.5 

6.5 

3.41—3.52 

4.05-4.75 

3.49-3.45 

GCa3  +  t€r)aSis. 
ZrSi. 
j[f  (CaMgFe)3   +  } 
1      l(Affe)]2Si3.      ) 

Zr  67  ;  S  33. 
j  Ca  27-38  ;  Mg  0-10  ;  Fe 
1  0-16;  Al  10-26;  Si  35-39. 

Versuvianite  . 

304:  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

THE  PRINCIPAL  SILICON  MINERALS— (Contin ued.) 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

- 

(     Ca  16-30  ;  'M  14-28  ; 

Upidote  

6—7 

3.25—3.5 

(3Ca3  +  10PeAl)asi3. 

•!    ... 

|       Fe  7-17  ;  Si  36-57. 

(  Mg  8.8  ;  Fe  7.9  ;  Al  33.9  ; 

lolite      

7—7.5 

2.56—2.67 

2(MgFe)s'i  +  Alis'i 

1 

(                  Si  49.4. 

Biotite  

2.5—3 

2.7—3.1 

j    [i(K  Mg  Fe)3  + 

I 

j  Mg  4—25  ;    Fe  0-20  ;  A4 

1      KAlFe)]2Si3. 

1 

1  11—21;  ?e4—  25;  Si  36—44 

Muscovite  

2-2.5 

2.75—3.1 

j  [K3(A4Fe)]2Si3  + 
1            liS'i. 

1 

j       K  5—12  ;  Al  31-39  ; 
1        'Fe  1-8  ;  Si  43—50. 

Lepidolite.... 

2.5-^ 

2.84—3 

j    [(KLi)3(A4Fe)]a 
1        Si3  +  881. 

I 

(  K  4—14;    Li  1-5;    A4 
(  14—38;  Fe  0-11;  Si  42—54. 

Wernerite  .... 

5-6 

2.63—2.8 

j  [3(CaNa)3  +  |Ai]a 

1 

(Na  5;   Ca  18.1;    Al  28.5; 

(         Si3  +  Si. 

1                 Si  48.4. 

Nephelite  

5.5-6 

2.5—2.65 

j     (Na3K3)2Si3  + 
j     3AlaSi8  +  3Si. 

! 

j  Na  16.9  ;  K  5.2  ;   Al  33.7  ; 
(                  Si  44.2. 

(     Na  0-12;   Ca  1-23; 

Lapis-Lazuli.  . 

5-5.5 

2.38-2.45 

Na,Ca,Al,Fe,Si,S, 

8. 

J      Al   11—43;    Fe  0-4; 

[s'i40—  66;  S  0—  5  ;  S  0—  4. 

Hauynite  

5.5-6 

2.4-2.5 

j     (|Na3  +  IADs 
|       Si3  +  CaS'! 

\ 

iNa  16.5  ;  'Al  27.4  ;  Si  32  ; 
Ca  9.9  ;  S  14.2. 

Leucite  

5.5—6 

2.44—2.56 

"K"tti    ,    !AJQ: 

XVOl     T     TXlQl.3. 

K  21.5  ;  Al  23.5  ;  Si  55. 

Anorthite  

6—7 

2.66—2.78 

GCa,  +  |Al)aSi3. 

Ca  20  ;  Al  36.9  ;  Si  43.1. 

iNa  4.5  ;  Ca  12.3  :  Al  30.3  ; 

Labradorite... 

6 

2.67—2.76 

(Na,Ca)Si  +  AlSi2 

. 

.. 

Si  52.9. 

Oligoclase  — 

6—7 

2.56-2.72 

j  i(Na,Ca)3  +  |A1) 
1       Si3  +  3fSi. 

\ 

j     Na  2—12  ;    Ca  0.5—5  ; 
(        Al  19.24  ;  Si  59—64. 

Albite  

6—7 

2.59—2.65 

j  (iNas  +  SA&Si, 

\ 

Na  11.8  ;  Al  19.6  ;  Si  68.6. 

|            +  6Si. 

\ 

4 

j    (ik3  +  fAl)2Si3 

) 

Orthoclase  

6-6.5 

2.44—2.62 

\ 

K  16.9  ;  Al  18.8  ;  Si  646. 

|            +  6Si. 

| 

(  One  sample  gave  Mg  54.5  ; 

Chrondrodite. 

6-6.5 

3.118—3.24 

Mg8Si3. 

(  Fe  6.75  ;  Si  33.19  ;  Fe  5.56. 

fNa  0—5  ;  K  0-4  ;  Ca  0—2. 

f[(Na,  K,  Ca,  Mg, 

1 

... 

Mg  0—15  ;   Fe  0—17  ;   Fe 

Tourmaline  .. 

7—7.5 

2.94-3.3 

Fe)3(Pe,'Al,B)]8 

0—11  ;  Al  30—44  ;  B4—  11  ; 

Si9. 

J 

> 

Si  35—40. 

THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  305 

THE  PRINCIPAL  SILICON  MINERALS— (Continued}. 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Andalusite.  .  . 

7-5    (for] 
trans- 
J  parent).  1 
1  3.1—3.2  f 
(for 
opaque)  J 

3.05—3.35 

AlSi. 

A4  63.2  ;  Si  36.8. 

f  M  63.2  ;  S.36.8  (Al  may  be 

Fibrolite  

6—7 

3.2—3.3 

&8L 

J   replaced  by  W'M  or  0.8^ 

[  Mg.    H  may  be  present.) 

Cyanite  

5—7.25 

3.45-3.7 

A&. 

M  63.2  :  8  36.8. 

Topaz  

8 

3.4—3.65 

MSi(Fl). 

j  Si  15.17  ;  Al  29.58  ;  O  34.67; 
|                 Fl  28.58. 

Euclase  

7.5 

3.098 

QHS  +  |Be3  +  £A4)S*i. 

{Be  17.4  ;  A4  35.3  ;  Si  41.1  ; 
H6.2. 

Datolite  

5-5.5 

2.8—3 

(Ca,,Ha,B)SL 

jCa  35.0;   H  5.6  ;   B  21.9; 
|                  Si  37.5. 

Titanite  

5-5.5 

3.4-3.56 

(Ca,Ti)Si. 

Ca21—  28;  Ti  33-43;  Si  30.35. 

Staurolite  

7-7.5 

3.4—3.8 

•J  v  t..*  .g  +  !• 

(    3^6).,  |Al)1Si3.    ) 

(H1.7;   Mg  2.5;   Fe  15.8; 
|          A4  51.7  ;  Si  28.3. 

Pectolite  

5 

2.68—2.78 

(1-H  +  £Na  +  £Ca)Si. 

j  H  2.7  ;   Na  9.3  ;    Ca  3a8  ; 
|                  Si  54.2. 

Laumontite... 

3.5-4 

2.25-2.36 

&&*+*. 

(Call.9;  A121.9;  Si  50.9; 
(                  H  15.3. 

Dioptose  

5 

3.278—3.48 

CuSi  +  H. 

Cu  50.4  ;  Si  38.2  ;  H  11.4 

Chrysocolla.  .  . 
Calamine  

2—4 
4.5-5 

6-6.5 

2-2.38 
3.16-3.9 

2.8—2.95 

CuSi  +  2H. 
ZnaSi  +  H. 

Cu  45.3  ;  H  20.5  ;  Si  34.2. 
Zn  67.5  ;  H  7.5  ;  Si  25. 
j  Ca  27.1  ;    H  4.4  ;    Al  24.9  ; 
1                  Si  43.6. 

Prehnite...  . 

Chlorastrolite. 

5.5-6 

3.18 

j   (Ca,Na,)aSia  -f    | 

(Na  5.2;  Ca  18.7;  Fe  6.4; 

|2(A4,Fe)2Si3  +  6H.  f 

1    Al  24.6  ;  Si  37.6  ;  H  7.5. 

Apophyllite... 

4.5—5 

2.3—2.4 

1        Si  +  HSi.         ) 

|   H  16.7  ;   K  4.8  ;   Ca  23  ; 
1                  Si  55.5. 

Natrolite  

5—5.5 

2.17—2.25 

NaAi,3Si,2H. 

Na  16.3  ;   A4  27  ;    Si  47.2  ; 
.  H  9.5. 

Analcite  

5—5.5 

2.22—2.29 

Na,*Al,4Si,2H. 

Nal4.1;  M23.3;   Si  54.4  ; 
H  8.2. 

306  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

THE  PRINCIPAL  SILICON  MINERALS — (Continued). 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Chabazite  

4.5 

2.0—2.19 

j  [jCa  +  KNa,K)]  | 
(        Al,4Si,6H.        | 

f      Ca  4—11  ;  Na  0—4  ; 
J    K  0.17—2.58  ;  Al  17—21  ; 
[      Si  45—  52;    H  19—  22. 

Ba23.7;  &  15.9;  Si  46.5; 

Harmotome.  .  . 

4.5 

2.44-2.45 

Ba,AJ,5Si  -f  5H. 

H  13.9.    When  it  contains 
Ca7.4;  M  20.5;  Si  47.9; 

Stelbite 

3.5—4 

2.094—2.205 

K  6.3  ;  H  17.9. 
jCa  8.9;  "M  16.5;   Si  57.4; 
(                  H  17.2. 

Ca,Al,6Si,6H. 

Henlandite  
Talc. 

3.5—4 

1.15 
2—2.5 

2.2 
2.565—2.8 

Ca,Al,6Si,5H. 

(fMg  +  lH)Si. 
Mg2Si3  +  2H. 

j  Ca  9.2  ;  Al  16.9  ;  Si  59.1  ; 
(                  H  14.8. 
Mg  33.5  ;  Si  62.8  ;  H  3.7. 
Mg27.1;  H12.1;  Si  60.8. 

Sepiolite  

Serpentine  — 

- 

— 

(pIg+iH)2Si  +  ,jH. 

Mg  42.97;  Si  44.  14;  H  12.89. 

Prochlorite..  .  . 

1—2 

2.78—2.96 

j  tt(Mg,Fe)3  +  fAl]  ) 
1            Si£H.             j" 

(Mgl5.3;  Fe  27.5  ;  Al  19.7; 
|            Si  26.8;  H  11.7. 

QUARTZ. 

The  composition  of  Quartz  is  pure  silica  or  silicon  46.67, 
oxygen  53.33  (Si02).  The  many  different  varieties  of  quartz 
may  be  regarded  as  allotropic  modifications.  "  Quartz  may  be 
massive ;  coarse  or  fine  granular  to  flint-like  or  crypto-crystal- 
line.  Sometimes  mamillary,  stalactitic,  and  in  concretionary 
forms." 

Colorless  when  pure ;  often  various  shades  of  yellow,  red, 
brown,  green,  blue,  and  black.  Streak  is  white,  with  pure 
varieties ;  if  impure,  often  the  same  as  color,  although  paler. 
Transparent,  opaque.  Hardness  =  T.  Specific  gravity  = 
2.5-2.8  ;  2.6413-2.641  (Bendant) ;  2.663  (Deville).  It  acquires 
vitreous  electricity  by  friction,  but  loses  it  very  quickly. 
Tough,  brittle,  friable.  Polarization  circular,  there  being  a 
colored  centre  instead  of  a  central  cross,  and  the  rings  of  color 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  307 

around  enlarging  as  the  analyzer  is  turned  to  the  right  in  the 
right-handed  crystals,  or  left  in  the  left-handed ;  and  colored 
spirals  are  seen,  which  rotate  to  the  right  or  left,  when  the 
incident  light  and  emergent  light  are  polarized,  one  circularly 
and  the  other  plane. 

It  is  infusible  before  the  blowpipe.  "With  soda  it  unites, 
with  effervescence;  with  salt  of  phosphorus  no  action  takes 
place.  It  is  not  acted  upon  by  any  acid  except  hydrofluoric. 

The  varieties  of  quartz  are  quite  numerous,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered as  follows : 

"  CRYSTALLIZED  QUAETZ. 

"  CONCRETIONARY  QUARTZ,  AGATE,  or  CHALCEDONY. 

"  JASPER. 

"  SILEX  or  FLINT,  which  is  more  easily  attacked  by  alkalies 
than  the  other  varieties.  It  is  never  pure. 

"  EARTHY  QUARTZ,  sometimes  in  the  shape  of  flour,  and  in 
every  way  analogous  to  the  silicic  acid  produced  in  the  labo- 
ratories. It  is  often  formed  of  the  skeletons  of  infusoria. 

"  QUARTZITES  and  SAND." 

With  respect  to  CRYSTALLIZED  QUARTZ,  the  form  is  a  rhombo- 
hedron  of  94°  15',  but  this  primitive  form  is  rarely  found,  and 
is  always  in  very  small  crystals.  The  most  general  form  is  the 
combination  of  two  rhornbohedra,  by  which  the  prism  is  appar- 
ently terminated  by  a  hexagonal  pyramid.  The  rhombohedron 
with  the  hexagonal  prism  is  a  form  sometimes  found. 

Quartz  is  found  penetrated  by  various  minerals,  "  as  topaz, 
chrysoberyl,  garnet,  different  species  of  hornblende  and  pyrox- 
ene groups,  kyanite,  zeolites,  calcite  and  other  carbonates, 
rutile,  stibnite,  hematite,  gothite,  magnetite,  fluorite,  gold, 
silver,  anthracite,  etc." 

CONCRETIONARY  QUARTZ,  AGATE,  or  CHALCEDONY  is  less 
pure  than  crystallized  quartz.  A  gray  chalcedony  from  Hun- 
gary gave,  according  to  Redtenbaher  (Ramm.  Min.  Ch.,  1007), 
Si  98.87,  '-Fe  0.53,  CaC  0.62  =  100.02.  Heintz  analyzed  a  car- 
nelian,  which  was  a  clear  red,  and  found  the  red  color  to  be 


308  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

due  to  ferric  oxide— fie  0.050,  Al  0.081,  Mg  0.028,  K  0.043, 
Na  0.075. 

Klaproth  analyzed  a  specimen  of  chrysoprase  which  was 
apple-green,  and  found  in  that  of  Silesia  (Beitr,  ii,  127), 
Si  96.16, 'A  0.08,  fe  0.08,  Ni  1.0,  Ca  0.83,  H  1.85  =  100.  The 
color  was  due  to  the  presence  of  nickelous  oxide. 

Redtenbacher  has  analyzed  a  brown-banded  agate  with  the 
following  results  :  Si  98.91,  fe  0.72,  CaC  0.31  =  99.94.  Some 
agates  which  are  remarkable  for  their  colors  are  made  use  of 
in  the  arts,  such  as  the  blue  variety  called  sapphirine.  Besides 
the  carnelian,  which  is  clear  red,  and  the  chrysoprase,  which  is 
clear  apple-green,  mentioned  above,  the  phrase,  which  is  dark- 
green,  and  the  sardine-stone,  which  is  dark-brown,  are  much 
used  in  the  arts.  When  agates  are  used  for  cameos,  they  must 
have  parallel  layers  of  different  colors.  These  are  often  pro- 
duced artificially.  The  zone  or  ribbon  agate  is  much  used  in 
the  arts.  When  the  zones  or  strata  are  in  parallel  layers,  and 
the  colors  in  great  contrast,  this  variety  is  called  onyx. 

JASPER  is  the  name  given  to  impure,  opaque-colored  quartz. 
The  red  jasper  is  colored  by  ferric  oxide — the  brownish  or 
ochre-yellow  jasper  is  colored  by  hydrated  ferric  oxide,  which 
when  heated  loses  water  and  becomes  red.  It  may  also  be 
dark-green  and  brownish-green ;  grayish  blue  and  blackish  or 
brownish-black.  Striped  or  ribbon  jasper  has  the  colors  in 
broad  stripes  ;  Egyptian  jasper  in  nodules,  which  are  zoned  in 
brown  and  yellowish  colors.  Jasper  admits  of  a  high  polish, 
and  is  used  for  vases,  boxes,  etc.  Porcelain  jasper  is  nothing 
but  baked  clay,  and  differs  from  true  jasper  in  being,  before 
the  blowpipe,  fusible  on  the  edges.  Red  porphyry,  or  its 
base,  resembles  jasper,  but  is  also  fusible  on  the  edges,  being 
usually  an  impure  feldspar.  Jasper  is  used  extensively  in  the 
manufacture  of  Florentine  mosaics. 

In  the  variety  of  quartz  called  SILEX  or  FLINT,  there  is  no 
trace  of  crystallization  to  be  distinguished,  not  even  under  the 
microscope.  The  colors  are  not  so  bright  as  in  chalcedony. 
Lustre  is  barely  glistening.  Subvitreous.  It  breaks  with  a 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  309 

deeply  conchoidal  fracture,  and  a  sharp  cutting  edge.  It  con- 
tains more  impurities  than  the  agate.  There  is  usually  one 
per  cent,  or  so  of  alumina  and  peroxide  of  iron,  with  one  or 
two  of  water.  The  coloring  matter  of  the  common  kinds  is 
mostly  carbonaceous  matter. 

EARTHY  QUARTZ. — This  variety  is  another  distinct  allotropic 
modification.  It  is  sometimes  called  Flowers  of  Silica,  and  is 
almost  entirely  soluble  in  alkalies. 

SAND  is  the  name  applied  to  quartz  in  a  finely-divided  state. 
Sand  may  be  of  different  kinds ;  sometimes  each  grain  is  a 
complete  crystal,  sometimes  it  is  rounded  or  concretionary,  and 
sometimes  it  appears  to  have  no  form,  but  made  up  of  frag- 
ments of  crystals. 

When  the  grains  of  sand  are  united  by  a  cement,  such  as 
ferric  oxide  or  lime,  large  and  round  fragments  are  formed 
called  pudding-stones.  If  the  fragments  are  angular,  it  is 
called  breccia.  When  the  cement  is  silicic  acid,  it  forms  a 
rock  which  is  called  QUAETZITE.  At  Fontainebleau,  the  sands 
contain  sufficient  lime  to  cause  them  to  crystallize  with  the 
form  of  calcite,  even  when  they  contain  as  much  as  80-85%  of 
silicic  acid.  Quartz  is  found  all  over  the  United  States. 

Quartz  crystals  are  sometimes  found  of  enormous  size.  A 
group  in  the  Museum  of  the  University  of  Naples  weighs 
nearly  half  a  ton.  A  crystal  belonging  to  Sig.  Rafelli,  of 
Milan,  measures  3^  ft.  in  length  and  5^-  in  circumference,  and 
its  weight  is  estimated  at  870  Ibs.  Another  in  Paris  3  feet  in 
diameter  and  weighs  8  cwt.  A  group  from  Moose  Mountain, 
N.  H.,  at  Dartmouth  College,  weighs  147-J  Ibs.  and  contains 
48  crystals,  four  of  them  from  5  to  5-J  inches  in  diameter,  ten 
from  4  to  4|  inches.  A  crystal  from  Waterbury,  Vt.,  is  2  ft. 
long  and  18  inches  through,  and  weighs  175  Ibs. 

OPAL 

The  composition  of  Opal  is  Si,  the  same  as  quartz,  but  it 
contains  a  varying  quantity  of  water,  from  3  to 


310  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses  of  opal : 


LOCALITIES. 

Si. 

H. 

At. 

£E. 

CA. 

NA. 

0. 
0.90 

0.16 

K. 

34 
0.80 

0.19 

Mo. 

1.48 
0.86 

0.47 
0.30 

's. 

0.31 

0.31 

ORO. 
2.28 

1.  Czerwenitza  (precious  opal)  
2.  Zimapan  (fire  opal)  

90 
92 
88.73 
90.20 
93.01 
96.94 
91.56' 
87.58 

87.86 
94.00 

10 
7.75 
7.97 
2.73 
4.12 
3.06 
5.76 
8.89 

8.43 
5.00 

0.99 
1.86 
0.12 

1.04 
2. 

0.13 
0 

0.25 

4.11 
0.37 

0.18 
04 

0.73 
5 

0.49 

0.33 
1.09 

0.75 

~~ 

3.  Faroe  (fire  opal)  
4   Schift'enberg  (semi-opal) 

5.  Oberkassel  (wood  opal). 

6.  Waltsch,  Bohem.  (hyalite^. 

7   Iceland  (geyserite) 

8  Bilin  (tripolite) 

9.  Luneberg  (infusorial  earth)  
10.  Paris  (Q.  nectique—  floatstone)  .  . 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Klaproth  (Beitr.,  ii,  151). 

2  "         u         (L  c.,  iv,  156). 

3  "  Forchhammer  (Pogg.,  xxxv,  331). 

4  »  Wrightson  (Ann.  Ch.  Pharm.,  liv,  358). 

5  "  R.  Brandes  (Nogg.  Geb.  Rh.  Westph.,  i,  338). 

6  "  Damour  (Bull.  G.  Fr.,  II,  v,  163,  1848). 

7  "  Bickell  (Ann.  Ch.  Pharm.,  Ixx,  290). 

8  "  Baumann  (Ramm.  Min.  Ch.,  136). 

9  "  Haustein  and  Schultz  (Ann.  Ch.  Phann.,  xcv,  292) 
10  "  Bucholz  (Leouk.  Ta&ch.,  vi,  5,  8). 

Opal  may  have  the  following  colors :  white,  yellow,  red, 
brown,  green,  and  gray;  the  colors  are  generally  pale.  It 
often  has  a  very  bright  play  of  colors.  Streak  is  white.  Lustre 
is  vitreous,  pearly,  or  resinous.  Transparent,  translucent, 
opaque.  Its  'hardness  is  from  5.5  to  6.5.  Specific  gravity  = 
1.9-2.3.  It  is  infusible  before  the  blowpipe,  but  loses  water 
and  becomes  opaque.  In  some  varieties  the  transparency  may 
be  made  to  reappear  by  plunging  it  into  water. 

When  the  colors  are  very  dark,  they  arise  from  foreign  ad- 
mixtures; in  such  cases,  sulphuric  acid  will  turn  it  black, 
owing  to  organic  matter.  Some  yellow  varieties,  containing 
oxide  of  iron,  turn  red.  It  is  soluble  in  alkalies. 

In  a  vacuum  it  loses  its  water  and  becomes  entirely  opaque. 

The  variety  known  as  precious  opal  is  generally  found  dis- 
seminated in  trachytic  or  porphyritic  rocks.  Such  opals  are 
greatly  prized  as  objects  of  ornament.  The  play  of  colors  of 
the  opal  seems  to  depend  on  the  hydration  of  the  silicic  acid ; 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


311 


for  if  an  opal  is  heated  it  loses  fire,  but  often  regains  it  to  a 
less  degree  if  plunged  into  water. 

Precious  opal  occurs  in  porphyry  at  Czerwenitza,  near 
Kashaw,  in  Hungary ;  also  in  Honduras.  Fire  opal  occurs  at 
Zimapan,  in  Mexico.  Common  opal  is  abundant  at  Telke- 
banya,  in  Hungary  ;  in  Moravia,  Bohemia,  Iceland,  the  Giant's 
Causeway,  and  the  Hebrides.  Hyalite  occurs  at  Schemnitz, 
in  Hungary.  Wood  opal  forms  large  trees  in  the  pumice  con- 
glomerate of  Saiba ;  also  in  Hungary,  Faroe,  and  Tasmania. 

The  Luneberg  earth  contains  many  species  of  infusoria,  and 
is  10  to  18  feet  thick. 

In  the  United  States,  hyalite  occurs  sparingly  in  New  York, 
rarely  in  North  Carolina,  and  in  Georgia  and  Florida.  In  Wash- 
ington County,  Georgia,  good  fire  opals  have  been  found. 

BERYL 

The  composition  of  Beryl  is  silica  66.8,  alumina  19.1,  glu- 
cina  14.1  (JBe3  +  -J&)  Si3. 

There  are  two  prominent  groups  of  beryl  depending  on  the 
color,  the  color  varying  as  chromium  or  iron  is  present.  When 
the  color  is  bright  emerald  green,  it  is  owing  to  the  presence 
of  chromium  and  is  called  Emerald.  All  other  specimens  are 
called  Beryl)  and  owe  their  color  to  iron. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


Si. 

'At. 

BE. 

FE 

CA. 

MG. 

1.  Rosenbach,     Beryl  

65.51 

20.71 

11.46 

1.33 

0.23 

0.12 

2.  Fossum 

67.00 

19.64 

12.56 

0.53 

0.18 

- 

3.  Goshen,  Mass.,  " 

66.97 

17.22 

12.92 

2.03 

— 

ttn,  tr. 

4   Muso  EmeTdld 

68.50 

15.75 

12.50 

1.00 



•CrO.30,  CaO.35. 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Hofmeister  (Ib.,  Ixxxi,  1). 
No.  2,  by  Schcerer  (Pojrg.,  xlix,  533). 
No.  3,  by  Mallet  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  II,  xvii,  180). 
"       No.  4,  by  Klaproth  (Beitr.,  iii,  215). 

The   colors  of  beryl  are  very  variable;  they  are  emerald 
green,  pale  green,  passing  into  light  blue,  yellow  and  white. 


312  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Streak  is  white.  Brittle.  Lustre  vitreous  or  resinous;  the 
opaque  varieties,  however,  have  no  lustre.  Double  refraction 
feeble ;  axis  negative.  Hardness  =  7.5-8.  Specific  gravity  = 
2.63-2.76.  At  a  high  temperature  before  the  blowpipe  the 
edges  become  rounded.  Fuses  at  5.5  (Kobell). 

The  colored  varieties  become  white  when  heated  and  lose 
in  weight,  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  color  is  due 
to  organic  matter.  Glass  with  borax  clear  and  colorless  for 
beryl,  a  fine  green  for  emerald.  Unacted  upon  by  acids. 

Emeralds  are  found  in  clay-slate  near  Muso,  New  Grenada. 
A  perfect  hexagonal  crystal  from  this  locality,  two  inches  long, 
is  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  Emeralds  of  less 
beauty  but  of  large  size  are  found  in  Siberia,  Mount  Zalora, 
and  in  Upper  Egypt.  Transparent  beryls  are  found  in  Sibe- 
ria, Hindostan  and  Brazil.  Beryls  of  gigantic  size  have  been 
found  in  New  Hampshire  and  in  Massachusetts.  One  beryl 
from  Grafton,  N.  H.,  weighs  2.900  pounds ;  it  is  32  inches 
through  in  one  direction  and  22  in  another.  It  is  also  found 
in  Maine,  Connecticut,  and  Pennsylvania. 

GARNET. 

Garnet  is  a  unisilicate,  of  sesquioxide  and  protoxide  bases, 
having  the  general  formula  (JF^  +  i^S's  or  (Rg^Sia+^S's' 
The  following  are  the  varieties  (with  the  exception  of  the 
last)  which  blend  together  more  or  less  completely,  through 
varieties  containing  combinations  of  the  protoxide  bases  and 
also  of  the  sesquioxide  bases  : 

A.  Grossularite  or  Lime-alumina  garnet. 

B.  Pyrope  or  Magnesia-alumina  garnet. 

C.  Almandite  or  Iron-alumina  garnet. 

D.  Spessartite  or  Manganese-alumina  garnet. 

E.  Andradite  or  Lime-iron  garnet. 

F.  Bredergite  or  Lime-magnesia-iron  garnet. 

G.  Ouvarovite  or  Lime-chrome  garnet. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  313 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses  of  the  different  varieties : 


Si. 

A*. 

PE. 

FE. 

MN. 

Ma. 

CA. 

1    Sludianka  K     Gross         ,     . 

4099 

1490 

10.94 

0  98 

3294 

2  Wilni   Grossularite          

38.25 

19.35 

7.33 

050 

240 

31  75 

3   Pyrope 

41  35 

2235 

9  94 

2  59 

15  00 

5  29     Cr  4  17 

4   Fahlun  Almo/tidite.     

3966 

19.66 

3968 

1  80 

5.  Haddam,  Ct.,  Spessarfite  
6.  Westmoreland,  Andradile.  .  . 
7.  Sala,  Bredergite        

35.83 
37.55 
36.73 

18.06 

2.78 

31.35 

25.83 

14.63 

30.96 
4.70 

1244 

26.74 
21  79 

8.  Bissersk,  Ouvarovite  

37.11- 

5.88 

2.44 

22.54 

1.10 

30.34,   H  3.01 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Ivanoff  (Kokscb.  Min.  Russl.,  iii,  79). 
"       No.  2,  by  Karsten  (Karat.  Arch.  Min.,  iv,  388). 
**       No.  3,  by  Moberg  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  xliii,  122). 
No.  4,  by  Hisinger  (Schw.  J.,  xxi,  258). 
**       No.  5,  by  H.  Seybert  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  vi,  155, 1823). 
"       No.  6,  Hisinger  (Jahresb.,  ii,  101). 
"       No.  7,  Bredberg  (Ak.  H.  Stockh.,  i.  63,  1822). 
"       No.  8,  Kourouen  (Vech.  Min.  Ges.  St.  Pet.,  1841-55). 

Color  of  garnet  may  be  red,  brown,  yellow,  white,  apple- 
green,  black ;  some  of  the  red  and  green  colors  are  often 
bright.  Streak  is  white.  Transparent,  translucent,  opaque. 
Fracture  conchoidal  or  uneven.  Garnet  is  generally  found 
crystallized,  faut  the  crystals  are  very  often  distorted.  Hard- 
ness —  6.5-7.5.  Specific  gravity  =  3.15-4.3..  It  is  brittle  and 
sometimes  friable ;  when  granular,  massive ;  very  tough,  when 
compact ;  cryptocrystalline. 

In  the  reducing  flame  of  the  blowpipe  most  varieties  fuse  to- 
a  light- brown  or  black  gloss,  and  often  becomes  magnetic, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  iron.  The  dark-red  varieties  are 
easily  fusible  to  a  magnetic  scoria,  as  they  contain  more  iron. 
Some  varieties  are  partially  decomposed  by  acids ;  all  except 
ouvarovite  are  after  ignition  decomposed  by  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  generally  with  separation  of  gelatinous  silica.  Decom- 
posed on  fusion  with  alkaline  carbonates. 

Common  garnet  is  found  in  Sweden  and  Norway.  Alman- 
dite  or  precious  garnet  is  found  in  Ceylon,  Peru,  Brazil  and 
Greenland.  Other  varieties  are  found  in  Bohemia,  Saxony, 
Hungary,  and  in  the  Urals. 

In  the  United  States,  in  Maine,  beautiful  yellow  crystals  or 


314: 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


cinnamon  stones  (with  idocrase)  are  found.  Garnets  are  also 
found  in  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  California ; 
also  found  in  Canada  and  New  Mexico. 

LAPIS    LAZULI. 

The  composition  of  Lapis  Lazuli  is  silicate  of  soda,  lime 
and  alumina,  with  a  sulphide,  probably,  of  iron  and  sodium. 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses  : 


Si. 

At. 

FB. 

CA. 

NA. 

H. 

S. 

1.  Orient  

46.0 

14.5 

3.0 

17.5 



2.0 

4.0,  C10.0. 

2.  Bucharei  

45.50 

31.76 

Tr. 

3.52 

9.09 

0.12 

5.89,  Fe  0.86,  Ci  0.42,  S  0.95. 

3.  Andes  

45.70 

25.34 

1.30 

7.48 

10.55 

4.32,  S  3.96,  K  1.35. 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Klaproth  (Beitr.  i,  189). 

"        No.  2,  by  Varrentrapp  (Pogg.,  xlix,  515). 
No.  3,  by  Schultz. 


Color  of  lapis  lazuli  is  azure-blue,  violet-blue,  red,  green, 
or  colorless.  Streak,  same  as  color.  Translucent,  opaque. 
Fracture  uneven.  Hardness,  5-5.5.  Specific  gravity,  2.38-2.45. 

When  heated  in  a  closed  tube,  gives  off  moisture;  the 
variety  from  Chili  glows  with  a  beetle-green  light,  but  the 
color  of  the  mineral  remains  blue  on  cooling.  Fuses  easily  at 
3  with  intumescence,  and  gives  a  bluish  bead.  In  acids  it  is 
more  or  less  easily  attacked,  and  gelatinizes,  evolving  at  the 
same  time  a  little  H2S.  The  action  of  acids  is  frequently  to 
decolorize  it ;  sometimes  it  is  not  attacked  by  acids  except 
after  calcination. 

It  is  usually  found  in  syenite  or  crylallien  limestone,  associ- 
ated often  with  pyrite  and  mica  in  scales. 

It  is  found  in  Siberia,  of  a  dark-blue  color ;  also  in  Transyl- 
vania, Persia,  China,  Thibet,  Tartary,  and  near  the  Rio 
Grande. 

It  is  much  used  by  jewelers,  especially  when  it  contains 
pyrite.  It  was  formerly  used  to  make  ultramarine,  but  is  now 
superseded  by  a  cheap  artificial  preparation. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


315 


ORTHOCLASE. 

The  composition  of  orthoclase  or  feldspar  is  (JK3  +  f  Al)2 
Si3  +  6Si,  or  else  with  half  the  excess  of  silica  basic  =  silica, 
64.6 ;  alumina,  18.5 ;  potash,  16.9,  with  soda  sometimes  re- 
placing part  of  the  potash.  The  orthoclase  of  Carlsbad  con- 
tains rubidium. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  varieties.  The  following  are  a 
few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

Si. 

&L. 

FE. 

Mo. 

CA. 

NA. 

K. 

ZN. 

1.  Lomnitz,  Silesia  
2.  Siberia  
3.  Radeberg,  Sax.  (wh.) 
4.  Schemnitz  

66.75 
65.32 
65.24 
64.00 

17.50 
17.89 
20.40 
18.00 

1.75 
0.30 

0.53 

0,09 
0.84 
0.31 

1.25 
0.10 

0.78 



12.0 
2.81 
0.27 
0.79 

13,05,  Mn  0.19,  Ca  tr. 
12.35-0.52,  Li  0.71 
15.43,  Pb  and  Ca  0.32 

5.  Davidson  Co.,  N.  C.. 
6.  Zircon—  Syenite  
7.  Ischia  

65.30 
66.03 
6709 

20.20 
19.17 

18.88 

Trace 
0.31 
1.25 

Trace 
0.03 

0.05 
0.20 
0.35 

0.78 
6.83 
4.59 

4.35 
6.96 

7.58 

0.21 

8  Lococlase 

6540 

1948 

1.25 

0.20 

226 

723 

2.76 

0.76 

9.  Lochwald 

66.37 

19.95 

Trace 

0.40 

9.64 

3.42 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Rose  (Scheerer's  J.,  yiii,  248). 

"  "  2  "  Abich  (Pogg.,  li,  528 ;  B.  H.  Ztg.  Jahrg.,  19). 

"  "  3  "  Jenzsch  (Pogg.,  xcv,  304). 

"  4  "  C.  Bischof  (Bischof,  Lehrb.  Qeol.,  ii,  2171-2187). 

"  "  5  "  F.  A.  Genth  (Keller  and  Tied,  iii,  486). 

"  "  6  "  Scheerer  (Pogg.,  cviii,  426). 

"  "  7  "  G.  Bischof  (Lehrb.  Geol.,  1.  c.). 

'•  "  8  "  Smith  and  Brush  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  II,  xvi,  43). 

"          "  9  "  F.  Sandberger  (Geol.  Beschr.  Baden,  Carlsruhe,  181, 48). 

The  color  of  orthoclase  is  flesh-red,  white-gray,  greenish 
or  bright-green.  Streak  colorless.  Transparent,  translucent, 
opaque.  Fracture  conchoidal,  uneven.  Lustre  vitreous  on 
cleavage;  surface  sometimes  pearly.  Hardness,  6-6.5.  Spe- 
cific gravity,  2.44-2.62  ;  mostly,  2.5-2.6. 

Before  the  blowpipe,  the  colored  varieties  whiten.  In  thin 
scales  it  is  fusible  between  4  and  5  to  white  glass.  With 
borax  it  gives  a  transparent  glass,  and  with  salt  of  phosphorus 
a  silica  skeleton.  It  is  not  acted  on  by  acids.  Orthoclase  is 
an  essential  constituent  of  many  rocks.  It  is  found  in  fine 
crystals  at  Carlsbad  and  Elbogen  in  Bohemia ;  also  in  Siberia, 


316  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

Norway,  Silesia,  and  Cornwall,  etc.  In  the  United  States, 
orthoclase  is  found  in  crystals  in  Maine,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  North  Carolina,  etc.  Massive  orthoclase  is  abundant 
in  the  above  places,  as  also  in  Mt.  Desert,  Me. ;  Rockport, 
Mass. ;  Norwich,  Conn.  Kaolin  at  Andover,  Mass.,  and  abun- 
dantly in  New  Milford,  Kent,  and  Cornwall,  Conn.,  etc. 
Under  the  influence  of  atmospheric  agencies  the  silicates 
undergo  a  peculiar  decomposition.  When  decomposition 
has  taken  place  in  a  rock,  the  elements  of  which  are  well 
separated  as  large-grained  granites  and  pegmarites,  the  quartz 
is  unaltered  and  the  mica  is  not  decomposed ;  the  feldspar  or 
orthoclase  only  has  undergone  decomposition.  The  mica, 
however,  undergoes  certain  changes,  and  takes  on  a  silvery 
look,  which  it  did  not  have  in  the  unaltered  rock. 

The  products  of  decomposition  may  be  separated  as  follows : 

1.  KAOLINS  or  porcelain  clays,  resulting  from  the  decom- 
position of  rocks  in  places. 

2.  ORDINARY  CLAYS,  formed  as  sediments. 

3.  CLAYS,  produced  by  chemical' decomposition. 

KAOLIN. 

In  the  decomposition  of  orthoclase  to  form  kaolin,  it  loses 
IK  -f  -fSi.  Part  of  the  silica  set  free  may  go  off  with  more  or 
less  of  the  potash,  or  may  form  opal,  quartz,  or  siliceous  sinter. 
Kaolin  is  generally  a  simple  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina, 
expressed  by  the  formula  Al  Si2  +  2H  =  silica  46.3,  alumina  39.8, 
water  13.9.  It  is  usually  white,  and  somewhat  plastic,  not 
very  coherent,  earthy,  and  without  argillaceous  odor  when 
breathed  upon.  It  is  easily  separated  from  the  accompanying 
undecomposed  materials  by  crushing  and  washing.  It  is  very 
much  sought  for,  when  free  from  iron,  for  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  indispensable  that  all  the 
mica  should  be  washed  out. 

Brougniart  analyzed  a  great  number  of  kaolins  used  in  the 
arts,  and  arrived  at  the  following  limits : 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  317 

Si  23-46;    metallic  oxides  0.5-1;    Si  21-43 ;   Ca,  MgO-6; 
alkalies  0-05 ;  H  5-12  :  residue  not  argillaceous  0-3. 


ORDINARY    CLAYS. 

"  Clays  seem  to  have  been  formed  from  the  product  of  decom- 
position, carried  off  by  water  and  deposited  in  beds  in  the 
stratified  formations.  They  do  not  have  any  well-deiined 
character.  When  dry,  they  rapidly  absorb  water,  which  they 
lose  easily,  and  then  contract  and  crack  in  every  direction." 
Lustre  is  somewhat  pearly  or  waxy,  to  dull.  Color  white, 
grayish,  greenish,  bluish,  reddish.  When  taken  from  the 
earth,  they  are  sometimes  somewhat  translucent  on  the  edges, 
and  have  a  soapy  look  and  a  slight  lustre.  When  breathed 
upon,  they  give  a  peculiar  odor,  called  argillaceous,  like  the 
smell  of  ground  after  a  rain.  Fracture  is  conchoidal.  Hardly 
plastic.  Hardness  =  1-2.  Specific  gravity  =  1.8-2.4. 

The  composition  of  clays  is  very  variable,  but  they  can  all 
be  arranged  around  two  types,  represented  by  the  following 
compositions : 

I.  II. 

Si 45—50     60—66 

Al 34—38     18—25 

H 9—15     9—15 

These  may  be  represented  by  the  formulae : 

M  Si5  +  4H  ;     Si  51.83,  Al  35.36,  H  12.46,  and 
Al  Si5  +  3H  ;     Si  65.64,  Al  22.54,  H    4.82. 

"  These  clays  are  generally  plastic  enough  to  allow  their  use 
in  moulding  and  for  pottery.  When  they  contain  but  little 
iron,  they  can  be  used  for  fire-brick.  They  absorb  water  rap- 
idly, and  have  a  very  distinct  argillaceous  odor,  and  are  only 
partially  acted  on  by  acids." 


318 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


CHEMICAL    CLAYS. 

Under  this  head  is  considered  the  varieties  known  as  fuller's 
earth  or  smectic  clay. 

Their  composition  is  as  follows : 


LOCALITIES. 

ft. 

At. 

FE. 

MG. 

CA. 

H. 

1    Cilley  (smectite)     . 

51  21 

12  25 

207 

489 

2.13 

2789 

2.  Riegate  (fuller's  earth).. 

53.00 

10.00 

9.75 

1.25 

0.50 

24.00,  Ki!r,NaCl  0.10 

3.  SteindOrfel  (malthacite). 

50.17 

10.66 

3.15 

— 

0.25 

35.83 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Jordan  (Pogg.,  Ixxvii,  591). 

11    2  "  Klaproth  (Beitr.,  iv,  338). 
"  "    3  "  O.  Meissner  (1.  c.). 

Color  is  white,  gray,  and  various  shades  of  green  to  moun- 
tain green  and  olive  green,  or  brownish.  Softens  in  water. 
In  the  fracture  their  lustre  is  quite  bright ;  they  may  even  be 
translucent  on  the  edges.  They  do  not  absorb  water  as  easily 
as  kaolin  and  ordinary  clays,  but  they  unite  with  fats,  even 
when  cold,  and  saponify.  They  are  largely  used  for  soap  in  the 
countries  where  they  are  found. 

Before  the  blowpipe  the  malthacite  is  infusible;  but  the 
smectite  and  the  Riegate  fuller's  earth,  owing  to  the  impurities 
present,  fuse  rather  easily.  They  are  decomposed  by  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Malthacite  is  found  at  Steindorfel,  in  Lausitz;  and  Beraun, 
in  Bohemia.  Smectite  is  found  in  Cilley,  in  Lower  Styria. 

TOPAZ. 

The  composition  of  Topaz  is  silicon  15. IT,  aluminium  29.58, 
oxygen  34.67,  fluorine  20.58  [Al  (J8i02  +  iSiF2)]. 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

Si. 

£L. 

P. 

1.  Auerbach,  Saxony  

34.24 

57.45 

14.99 

2  Brazil  (yellow) 

3401 

58  38 

1506 

3  Finbo  (pyrophysalite)  .                          .... 

3436 

57  74 

15  02 

4.  Trumbull   Conn  

3539 

55  96 

1735 

5.  Altenberg  (pycnite)  

35.00 

48.00 

165 

THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  319 

Analyses  No.  1,  2,  3,  by  Berzelius  (Schweig  J.,  xvi,  423 ;  At  handl.,  Lv,  236). 
Analysis  No.  4  by  Forchhammer  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  xxx,  400). 
"  "    5  "  Bucholz  (Schw.  J.,  i,  385). 

The  color  of  topaz  may  be  blue,  green,  yellow,  orange- 
yellow,  red,  and  colorless.  The  colors  vary  with  the  locality 
and  crystalline  form,  and  appear  to  be  generally  owing  to 
organic  substances.  Streak  colorless.  Hardness  =  8.  Spe- 
cific gravity  =  3.4-3.65.  Lustre  vitreous.  Pyro-electric. 
Transparent,  subtranslucent.  Crystallizes  as  a  right  rhombic 
prism  of  124°  IT. 

It  is  infusible  before  the  blowpipe.  The  yellow  varieties, 
when  heated,  take  a  pink  or  red  color,  and  are  then  known  as 
burnt  topaz.  Fused  in  the  open  air  with  salt  of  phosphorus 
gives  the  reaction  for  fluorine.  Only  partly  attacked  by  sul- 
phuric acid.  Fine  topazes  come  from  the  Urals,  near  Katha- 
rinenburg  and  Miask ;  in  Nertschinsk,  beyond  L.  Baikal,  in 
the  Adun-Tschilon  Mountains,  etc.,  one  crystal  from  near  the 
River  Urulga,  now  in  the  imperial  cabinet  at  St.  Petersburg, 
being  llf  in.  long,  6J  in.  broad,  weighing  22|-  Ibs.  Av.,  and 
magnificent  also  in  its  perfect  transparency  and  wine-yellow 
color.  Found  also  in  Kamschatka;  Yilla  Rica,  in  Brazil; 
Aberdeenshire ;  Altenberg,  Norway ;  Broddbo,  Sweden.  One 
crystal  found  at  this  last  place  weighed  80  pounds. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  found  at  Trumbull,  Middletown, 
and  Willimantic,  Conn. ;  also  in  North  Carolina  and  Utah. 


TALC. 
Syn. — Steatite,  soapstone,  or  potstone. 

The  composition  of  talc  in  some  cases  may  be  represented 
by  the  formula  (-f  Mg  +  ^H)  =  silica  62.8,  magnesia  33.5, 
water  3.7.  In  other  cases  (|Mg  +  £H)  Si  +  ^H  =  silica  62-°> 
magnesia  33.1,  water  4.9.  The  formula  is  commonly  written, 
Mg6Si5  +  2H. 

The  following  are* a  few  analyses : 


320 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


LOCALITIES. 

Si. 

A3L. 

FE. 

Mo. 

H. 

1   Chamouni  (foliated  talc)    .  .  . 

62.58 

1.98 

3540 

0.04 

6329 

053 

227 

31  92 

0  78    Mn  0  23 

3.  Canton,  N.  Y.  (Rensselaerite)  .  . 
4   Rhode  Island  (talc)               

59.75 
61.75 

3.40 
1  70 

32.90 
31  68 

2.85,  Ca  1.00 
383 

5   Pottou  Canada  (steatite)  

59.50 

0.40 

4.50 

29.15 

4  40  M  tr 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Marignac  (Bibl.  Univ.,  1844). 

"  "    2  "  J.  Schneider  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  xliii,  316). 

"  "    3  "  Beck  (Min.  N.  Y.,  297). 

"  "    4  "  Delesse  (Rev.  Scientif.,  etc.). 

"    5  "  T.  S.  Hunt  (Rep.  G.  Can.,  1857,  454). 

The  color  of  talc  may  be  green,  white,  red,  and  gray. 
Streak  white,  or  lighter  than  color.  It  is  flexible,  but  not 
elastic,  which  allows  of  its  being  distinguished  from  mica.  Its 
touch  is  unctuous  and  soapy,  on  account  of  the  large  quantity 
of  magnesia  it  contains.  Lustre  is  pearly.  Sectile  in  a  high 
degree.  Hardness=l-1.5.  Specific  gravity =2.565-2.8.  Crys- 
tallizes in  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  120°. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  whitens,  swells,  and  sometimes 
decrepitates  a  little,  fusing  with  difficulty  on  the  edges.  With 
nitrate  of  cobalt  it  gives  the  reaction  for  magnesia.  Not 
decomposed  by  acids.  Rensselaerite  is  decomposed,  though, 
by  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

Talc,  or  steatite,  is  a  very  common  mineral,  and  constitutes 
beds  in  some  regions.  Apple-green  talc  occurs  in  the  Greiner 
Mountain,  in  Saltzburg;  in  Saltzburg,  Yalais,  Cornwall, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Shetland  Islands,  etc. 

In  the  United  States,  it  is  found  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Staten  Island,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  North  Carolina,  Also  in  Canada. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


321 


24.    SILVER. 
The  principal  Silver  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HAKD- 

NESS. 

SP.  GB. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Native  silver  

2.4—3 
3—35 

10.1—11.1 
10.5—14 

Ag  (when  pure) 

AgHgo 

Ag  100. 
Ag  34.8  ;  Hg  65.2. 

Argentite 

2—25 

7.196—7.365 

AgS 

Ag  87.1  ;  S  12.9. 

Pronstite  
Pyrargyrite 

2—2.5 
2—2.5 

5.422—5.56 
5.7—5.9 

3AgS  +  As2S3 
3AgS  +  Sb2S3 

Ag65.4;  S19.4;  As  15.2. 
Ag59.8;  Sb22.5;  S  17.7 

Stephanite     

2—2.5 

6.269 

5AgS  +  SboSs 

Ag68.5;  S16.2;  Sb  15.3. 

2  —  3 

6214 

9  (Ag  €u)  S  +  (Sb,  As)2S3 

jAg64.7;  Cu9.8;  S14.3; 

Cerargyrite 

115 

•  531—5.43 

AgCl 

|                   Sb  9.7. 
Ag  75.3  ;  €1  24.7. 

Bromyrite  
Embolite  

2—3 
1—1.5 

5.8-6 
5.31—5.81 

AgBr 

Ag  (Cl,  Br) 

Ag57.4;  Br42.6. 
Ag  69.28;  Br  14.30;  Cl  16.42 

lodyrite  

1—1.5 

5.5—5.71 

Agl 

Ag46;  154. 

NATIVE    SILVER. 

The  composition  of  Native  Silver  is  silver,  with  some  copper, 
gold,  and  sometimes  platinum,  antimony,  bismuth,  and  mer- 
cury. The  varieties  are : 

1.  AURIFEROUS. — Rust  elite  contains  10-30  per  cent,  of  sil- 
ver.    Color  is  white  to  pale  brass-yellow. 

The  name  ktistelite  was  given  to  an  ore  in  Nevada.  Hard- 
ness =  2-2.5.  Specific  gravity  =  11.32-13.10.  Eichter  found 
in  it  silver,  lead,  and  gold. 

2.  CUPRIFEROUS. — Contains  sometimes  10  per  cent,  of  copper. 
4.  ANTIMONIAL. — John  found  in  silver  from  Johanngeorgen- 

stadt  (Chem.  Tint.,  i,  285)  1  per  cent,  of  antimony,  and  traces 
of  copper  and  arsenic. 

The  color  of  native  silver  is  white,  but  is  subject  to  tarnish 
and  to  become  grayish-black.     Streak  silver-white.     Ductile, 
sectile.     Lustre  metallic.     Hardness  =  2.5-3.     Specific  grav- 
ity =  10.1-11.1;  when  pure,  10.5. 
21 


322  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

Native  silver  has  all  the  characteristics  of  silver  on  charcoal ; 
fuses  easily  to  a  metallic  globule.  In  the  oxidizing  flame 
gives  a  brown  coating.  Soluble  in  nitric  acid,  and  deposited 
again  by  metallic  copper,  or  precipitated  by  hydrochloric  acid 
as  argentic  chloride. 

The  mines  of  Konigsberg,  in  Norway,  have  furnished  mag- 
nificent specimens  of  native  silver.  A  mass  weighing  60  Ibs. 
was  obtained  from  the  Himmelsfurst  mine,  near  Freiberg, 
which  had  a  gravity  of  10.840.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Harz, 
Hungary,  Dauphiny,  and  in  some  of  the  Cornish  mines. 
Mexico  and  Peru  have  been  the  most  productive  countries  in 
silver.  A  Mexican  specimen  from  Batopilas  weighed,  when 
obtained,  400  Ibs. ;  and  one  from  Southern  Peru  (mine  of 
Huantaya)  weighed  over  8  cwt. 

In  the  United  States,  it  is  disseminated  through  the  copper 
mines  at  Michigan.  It  has  .also  been  found  in  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  California,  Nevada,  and  Idaho.  Also  found  in 
Canada. 

ARGENTITE. 

The  composition  of  Argentite,,  often  called  vitreous  silver 
and  silver  glance,  is  sulphur  12.9,  silver  87. 1  (AgS). 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses  : 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

AG. 

1   Joachimsthal 

15 

85 

2   Himmelsfiirst.    . 

14.7 

853 

3  Joachimsthal       .. 

14  46 

77  58    P 

b  3  68   Cu  1  53   Fe  2  02 

Analyses  No.  1  and  2  by  Klaproth  (Beitr.,  i,  158). 
Analysis  No.  3  by  Lindaker  (Vogl's  Min.  Joach.,  78). 

Color,  deep  iron-black,  with  very  little  lustre  on  the  natural 
faces.  The  lustre  is,  however,  bright  on  the  fracture.  Streak 
same  as  color,  and  shining.  Opaque.  Perfectly  sectile. 
Hardness  =  2-2.5.  Specific  gravity  =  7.196-7.365. 

Argentite  melts  when  held  in  a  flame,  without  the  aid  of  a 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


323 


blowpipe.  In  the  oxidizing  flame  it  is  roasted ;  in  the  reduc- 
ing flame  gives  a  metallic  globule.  Soluble  in  nitric  acid. 

It  is  found  as  amorphous  masses  disseminated  in  gangues, 
which  are  usually  limestones.  It  is  a  very  valuable  ore  of 
silver,  and  is  found  at  Freiberg,  Annaberg,  Joachimsthal  of 
the  Erzgebirge ;  at  Schemnitz  and  Kremnitz,  in  Hungary ;  in 
Norway,  in  the  Urals,  Cornwall,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Chili,. and 
Mexico. 

Occurs  in  Nevada,  at  the  Comstock  lode,  at  different  mines, 
along  with  stephanite,  native  gold,  etc. ;  in  the  vein  at  Gold 
Hill ;  common  in  the  ores  of  Reese  River ;  probably  the  chief 
ore  of  silver  in  the  Cortez  district ;  in  the  Kearsarge  district, 
silver  sprout  vein. 

PYRARGYRITE. 

The  composition  of  Pyrargyrite  is  sulphur  17.7,  antimony 
22.5,  silver  59.8  (3AgS  +  Sb2S3). 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

SB. 

AG. 

1    Mexico 

180 

21  8 

602 

2.  Chili 

17.45 

23  16 

59.01 

3.  Andreaeberg  

16.61 

22.85 

58.95,  gangue  0.30. 

Analysis  No.  1  by  WOhler  (Ann.  d.  Pharm.,  xxvii,  157). 
u    2  u  F-  Field  (Q  !  Ch  Soc.?  xU>  18)> 

"    3  "  Bonsdorff  (Ak.  H.  Stockh.,  1821,  338). 

The  color  of  pyrargyrite  is  black  or  very  dark  red.  Streak 
cochineal-red.  Lustre  metallic,  adamantine.  Translucent. 
Opaque.  Fracture  conchoidal.  Hardness  =  2-2.5.  Specific 
gravity  =  5.7-5.9. 

In  a  closed  tube,  gives  a  red  sublimate  of  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony ;  in  an  open  tube,  sulphurous  fumes  are  evolved,  and  a 
white  sublimate  of  oxide  of  antimony.  On  charcoal  it  fuses 
and  coats  the  coal.  Heated  for  some  time  in  the  oxidizing 
flame,  or  with  soda  in  the  reducing  flame,  a  globule  of  silver  is 


324: 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


obtained.     Decomposed  by  nitric  acid,  with  separation  of  sul- 
phur and  antimonious  acid. 

It  is  found  at  Andreasberg,  in  the  Harz ;  also  in  Saxony, 
Hungary,  Norway,  in  Spain  and  in  Cornwall.  In  Mexico,  it 
is  worked  extensively  as  an  ore  of  silver.  It  is  also  found  in 
Nevada,  at  "Washoe,  in  Daney  Mine ;  and  at  Poorrnan  lode, 
Idaho,  in  masses  sometimes  of  several  hundredweight,  along 
with  cyrargyrite.  It  is  a  valuable  ore  of  silver. 


STEPHANITE. 

The  composition  of  Stephanite  is  (5AgS  +  Sb2S3)   sulphur 
16.2,  antimony  15.3,  and  silver  68.5. 

The  following  are  two  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

SB. 

AG. 

FE. 

Cu. 

1    Sclicuiiiitz                                    .... 

16.42 

1468 

6854 

084 

2  Andreasberg 

1651 

1579 

6838 

014 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Rose  (Pogg.,  xv,  474). 

"    2  "  Kerl  (B.  H.  Ztg.,  1853,  No.  2). 

The  color  and  streak  of  Stephanite  is  black.  Lustre  metallic. 
Fracture  uneven.  Hardness  =  2-2.5.  Specific  gravity  = 
6.269  (Pryebrain). 

In  a  close  tube,  it  decrepitates  and  fuses,  and  after  long  heat- 
ing gives  a  faint  sublimate  of  sulphide  of  antimony.  On 
charcoal  it  decrepitates  and  fuses,  giving  the  rose-colored  coat- 
ing of  silver  and  antimony.  After  long  treatment,  a  globule 
of  silver  is  obtained. 

It  is  found  at  Freiburg,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  in  the 
Harz,  Mexico,  and  Peru. 

It  is  an  abundant  ore  in  Nevada,  in  the  Comstock  lode;  it 
is  also  found  in  Idaho.  • 

It  is  a  valuable  ore  of  silver. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


CERARGYRITE. 

The  composition  of  Cerargyrite  (called  also  Horn  Silver)  is 
chlorine  24.7,  silver  75.3  (AgCl).  The  color  is  white,  gray, 
grayish-green,  or  colorless  when  perfectly  pure.  Streak  color- 
less and  shining.  Transparent,  feebly  translucent.  Fracture 
somewhat  conchoidal.  Sectile.  Lustre  resinous,  passing  into 
adamantine.  Hardness  =  1—1.5.  Specific  gravity  =  5.552 ; 
5.31-5.43  (Domeyke). 

In  a  closed  tube  fuses  without  decomposition.  Fuses  in  a 
flame  of  a  candle.  On  charcoal,  gives  a  globule  of  silver. 
Insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  soluble  in  ammonia. 

The  largest  masses,  particularly  green,  are  found  in  Peru, 
Chili  and  Mexico.  It  is  also  found  in  Norway,  Brittany, 
Nevada,  California,  Idaho  and  Arizona.  It  is  mined  as  an  ore 
in  South  America. 

25.  SODIUM. 

The  principal  Sodium  minerals  are : 


MlNEKAL. 

HARDNESS. 

S?.  GB. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Soda  Nitre.... 

1 

1.937 

NaN' 

Na36.5;  'N63.5. 

Thenardite  — 

2-3 

2.5-2.7 

NaS. 

Na  56.3  ;  S  43.7. 

Mirabilite  

1.5-2 

1.481 

Na's  +  10H. 

Na  19.3  ;  *S  24.8  ;  H  55.9. 

Glauberite.... 

2.5—3 

2.64-2.85 

(JNa  +  |Ca)S. 

S57.5:  Ca20.1;  Na  22.4. 

Halite  ... 

2.5 

2.1_2  257 

NaCl 

Na  39  3  •  Cl  60  7. 

Borax  

2.25 

1.716 

NaB3  +  10H 

Na  16  2  •  B  36  6  ;  H  47  2 

Natron  

1—1.5 

1.423 

NaC  +  10H. 

Na  18.8  :  C  26.7  ;  H  54.5. 

SODA   NITRE. 

The  composition  of  Soda  Nitre  is  nitric  acid  63.5,  soda 
36.5  (NaN).  Hochstetter  obtained  from  the  Chilian  minerals 
(v.  Leonh.,  1846,  235)  NaS  94.291,  NaCl  1.990,  KS  0.239, 
K  N  0.426,  MgN  0.858,  insoluble  0.203,  II  1.993. 

The  color  of  soda  nitre  is  white  ;  also  reddish-brown,  gray. 


326 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


and  lemon-yellow.  Lustre  vitreous.  Fracture  indistinctly 
conchoidal.  Taste  cooling.  Crystals  strongly  double  refract- 
ing. Transparent,  translucent,  or  opaque. 

Deflagrates  on  charcoal ;  colors  the  flame  yellow.  Dissolves 
in  three  parts  of  water  at  60°  F. 

It  is  found  in  Peru  in  great  abundance ;  also  in  Chili  and 
India. 

GLAUBERITE. 

The  composition  of  Glauberite  is  sulphate  of  soda  51.1, 
sulphate  of  lime  48.9  (JNa  +  jCa)S. 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses : — 


•*& 

CA. 

NA. 

CL. 

FE. 

1.  Villa  Rubia  

565 

20.  2 

23.3 

g.  Ischl  

57  52 

20  37 

21  87 

0  31 

3.  Turapaca..  . 

5722 

2068 

21  32 

0  14 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Brougniart. 

"        No.  2,  by  v.  Hauer  (Ber.  Ac.  Wien). 

"       No.  3,  by  Hayes  (J.  Nat.  H.  Soc.  Bost.,  iv,  498). 

The  color  of  glauberite  is  generally  yellow,  somewhat  gray, 
but  when  -Fe  is  present  it  is  red.  Streak  is  white.  Fracture 
conchoidal ;  brittle.  Taste  slightly  saline.  Hardness  —  2.5-3. 
Specific  gravity  2.64-2.85. 

Decrepitates  and  melts  into  a  bead,  which  is  transparent 
when  hot,  but  opaline  when  cold.  Water  separates  the  sul- 
phates by  dissolving  the  sulphate  of  soda.  It  is  soluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Glauberite  is  found  at  Yilla  Rubia  near  Ocana  in  New 
Castle,  also  at  Ausse  in  Upper  Austria,  and  in  Bavaria.  Near 
Madrid  a  large  mass  of  glauberite  was  found  fourteen  to  fif- 
teen miles  thick  and  several  leagues  square. 

HALITE. 

The  composition  of  Halite  (common  salt)  is  chlorine  6017, 
sodium  39.3  (Nad). 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


327 


The  following  are  a  few  analyses  : 


NACL. 

MoCL. 

CAS'. 

NAS. 

MG'S. 

1   Vic  white  

99.3 

0.5 

—    Clay  0.2. 

90.3 

50 

2.0 

—       lv    1.9. 

3     "     red 

99.8 

_ 

—       "    0.2. 

4.    "     yellow  
5"     green 

96.70 
96.27 

0.23 
0.27 

1.21 
1.09 

- 

0.66 
0.80 

Analyses  No.  1-6,  by  Berthier  (Ann.  d.  M.,  x,  259). 

The  colors  of  halite  are  very  variable.  When  pure  it  is 
colorless,  but  generally  it  is  colored  by  some  earthy  or  organic 
matter.  It  may  be  gray,  red,  violet,  blue  or  green.  The 
cause  of  these  colors  is  not  very  well  understood ;  they  may 
be  owing  to  traces  of  Ni,  Co,  Cu,  or  organic  matter.  Streak 
is  white.  Lustre  vitreous.  Hardness  =  2.5.  Specific  gravity 
2.1-2.257 ;  of  pure  crystals  2.135  (Hunt).  Transparent,  trans- 
lucent. Fracture  conchoidal.  Rather  brittle.  It  is  soluble, 
and  has  its  own  peculiar  saline  taste. 

When  heated  it  at  first  decrepitates  and  then  melts;  when 
fused,  colors  the  flame  deep  yellow. 

Halite  or  common  salt  occurs  in  irregular  beds  in  rocks  of 
various  ages.  At  Durham,  Northumberland,  and  Leicester- 
shire, England,  salt  springs  rise  from  the  carboniferous  series ;  in 
the  Alps,  some  salt  works  are  supplied  from  oolitic  rocks.  In 
the  United  States,  the  brines  of  New  York  come  from  upper 
silurian;  those  of  Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  mostly 
from  Devonian  and  subcarboniferous  beds.  Salt  also  occurs 
as  efflorescences  over  the  dry  prairies  and  shallow  ponds  or 
lakes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  California.  The  principal 
mines  of  Europe  are  at  Wieliczka,  in  Poland ;  at  Hall,  in  the 
Tyrol ;  Stassfurt,  in  Prussian  Saxony.  Also  in  Bavaria,  Salz- 
berg,  Transylvania,  Upper  Silesia,  France,  Valley  of  Cardona 
and  elsewhere  in  Spain,  forming  hills  300  to  400  feet  high. 
Also  occurs,  forming  hills,  near  Lake  Oromiah,  the  Caspian 
Lake,  etc.  It  is  also  found  in  Algeria,  Abyssinia,  India, 
China  and  Russia.  In  the  United  States,  it  has  been  found  in 


328 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


Virginia,  Oregon  and  Louisiana.  Brine  springs  are  very 
numerous  in  the  Middle  and  Western  States.  These  springs 
are  worked  at  Salina  and  Syracuse,  "N.  Y. ;  in  the  Kanawha 
Valley,  Va. ;  Muskingum,  Ohio ;  Michigan  at  Saginaw  and 
elsewhere,  and  in  Kentucky. 

26.  STRONTIUM. 
The  principal  Strontium  minerals  are  : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Celestite 

3  3  5 

3  92—3  975 

Sr's" 

Sr  56  4  •  S  43  6 

Strontianite 

35    4 

3  605—3  713 

SrC 

Sr  70  2  •  C  29  8 

CELESTITE. 

The  composition  of  Celestite  is  sulphuric  acid  43.6,  strontia 
56.4  (SrS). 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

SB. 

BA. 

CA. 

F. 

1.  Frankstovvn,  Pa  
2  Siintel  Hanover.        .... 

42 
42.74 

58 

55.18 

086 

0.31 

0  04  CaC  0  02,  H  0.05 

3  Dehrself 

4294 

5501 

0.64 

0.65  Si  0.11  HO  25. 

4  Dom.bu.rg 

42.95 

56.26 

0.03,  '=y  0  05,  CaC  0.10,  H,  Bit    0  15 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Klaproth. 

"         Nos.  2, 3,  and  4  by  Stromeyer  (Unters.,  203). 

The  color  of  celestite  is  white,  often  faint  bluish,  and  inclin- 
ing to  pearly.  Streak  is  white.  Hardness  =  3-3.5.  Specific 
gravity  =  3.92-3.9T5 ;  3.9593,  crystals  (Bendant) ;  3.973,  fr. 
Tharaud  (Breith)  ;  3.96  fr.  Kingston  (Hunt).  Its  lustre  is 
very  bright,  often  pearly.  Fracture  is  lamellar  and  sometimes 
conchoid  al. 

Decrepitates  and  fuses,  coloring  the  flame  red.  Insoluble 
in  acids. 

It  is  found  in  Sicily,  Spain,  France,  Hungary,  Hanover, 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


329 


Austria,  Yorkshire,  and  New  Grenada.  It  is  found  about 
Lake  Huron,  particularly  about  Strontian  Island;  and  at 
Kingston,  Canada;  also  in  Chaumont  Bay,  Schoharie,  and 
Lockport,  N.  Y. 

Celestite  is  used  in  the  arts  for  making  nitrate  of  strontia, 
which  produces  the  red  color  in  fireworks. 


STRONTIAN  ITE. 

The  composition  of  Strontianite  is  carbonic  acid  29.8,  and 
strontia  70.2  (SrC).  The  strontia  is  often  replaced  in  a  small 
degree  by  lime. 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

SB. 

CA. 

EB. 

MN. 

H. 

1.  Strontian     .  .              .... 

30.0 

69.5 

05 

2.  Braunsdorf,  Saxony  
3   Strontian                .... 

29.94 
30.66 

67.52 
65.53 

1.28 
3.52 

0.01 

0.09 

0.07 

4           " 

3031 

6560 

347 

o 

07 

007 

' 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Klaproth  (Beitr.,  i.  270;  ii,  84). 
"  "    2  "  Stromeyer  ^Inters,  i,  193). 

"  u    3  u  Thomson  (Min.,  i,  108). 

"  "    4  "  Stromeyer  (1.  c.). 

The  color  of  strontianite  may  be  gray,  white,  yellow,  brown- 
ish, and  pale  green.  Streak  white.  Hardness  =  3.5-4.  Spe- 
cific gravity  =  3.605-3.713.  Lustre  vitreous,  inclining  to 
resinous  on  uneven  faces  of  fracture.  Transparent,  translu- 
cent. Fracture  uneven.  Brittle. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  swells,  arboresces,  and  fuses  on  the 
thin  edges,  and  colors  the  flame  red.  With  soda,  on  charcoal, 
the  pure  mineral  fuses  to  a  clear  glass,  and  is  entirely  absorbed 
by  the  coal.  Soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

It  is  found  at  Strontian,  in  Argyleshire,  in  Yorkshire, 
England ;  in  Ireland,  Harz,  Saxony,  and  Saltzburg. 

In  the  United  States,  it  occurs  at  Schoharie,  N".  Y. ;  at 
Muscalonge  Lake  ;  Chaumont  Bay ;  and  Theresa,  in  Jefierson 
County,  New  York. 

Strontianite  is  used  for  pyrotechnics. 


330 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


27.    SULPHUR. 

The  composition  of  Native  Sulphur  is  pure  sulphur,  which 
is  often  contaminated  with  clay  and  bitumen. 

When  it  is  quite  pure,  it  is  of  a  yellow  color,  called  sulphur- 
yellow,  sometimes  having  a  greenish  tint.  It  is  sometimes  of 
a  reddish  color,  which  has  been  attributed  to  traces  of  selenium. 
Streak  is  sulphur-yellow,  reddish,  or  greenish.  Hardness  = 
1.5-2.5.  Specific  gravity  =  2.072,  of  crystals  from  Spain. 
Lustre  is  resinous.  Transparent,  subtranslucent.  Fracture 
conchoidal,  more  or  less  perfect.  Sectile.  Crystallizes  as  a 
right  rhombic  prism,  101°  40'. 

Heated  in  a  closed  tube  it  fuses  and  volatilizes,  leaving  no 
residue,  if  it  is  pure.  In  an  open  tube,  it  burns  with  a  blue 
flame,  and  gives  off  sulphurous  fumes.  Becomes  strongly 
electrified  by  friction.  Insoluble  in  water,  and  not  acted  on 
by  acids. 

The  great  repositories  of  sulphur  are  either  beds  of  gypsum 
and  the  associated  rocks,  or  the  region  of  active  or  extinct 
volcanoes.  It  occurs  in  the  valley  of  Noto,  and  Mazzaro  in 
Sicily  ;  at  Con.il,  near  Cadiz,  in  Spain  ;  at  Bex,  in  Switzerland. 
Also  at  Hanover,  Egypt,  Tuscany,  and  in  the  Chilian  Andes. 

Sulphur  is  found  near  the  Sulphur  Springs  of  New  York, 
and  in  Virginia,  in  limited  quantities ;  also  in  North  Carolina 
and  Nevada. 


28.    TIN. 

The  principal  Tin  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HARDNESS. 

SP.  GR. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Cassiterite  
Stannite      

6-7 

A 

6.4—7.1 
4.3—4.522 

So. 

2(Cu,Fe,Zn)S  4-  SnS2. 

Sn  78.67,  O  21.23. 
j  Sn  27.2,  Cu  29.3,  Fe, 

C.5, 

\           Zn  7.5,  S  29.6. 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


331 


CASSITERITE. 

The  composition  of  Cassiterite  is  tin  78.67,  oxygen  21.33  (Sn). 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

SN. 

'tA. 

£E. 

MN. 

Si. 

£L. 

1   Finbo             

936 

2.4 

1.4 

0.8 

2  Wicklow  Ireland 

9526 

2.41 

084 

3    Tipuani  Bolivia  (buh)  

91  81 

1. 

)2 

6.48 

0.73 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Berzelius  (Afh.,  iv,  164). 

"    2  "  Mallet  (J.  G.  Soc.,  Dubl.,  iv,  276). 
»    3  "  Forbes  (Phil.  Mag.,  iv,  xxx,  140). 

Cassiterite  is  sometimes  found  colorless,  in  a  few  localities, 
but  generally  its  color  is  of  every  gradation,  intermediate 
between  gray,  white,  and  yellow.  The  color  is  generally  in 
bands  not  equally  diffused.  Streak  white,  grayish,  or  brown- 
ish. Hardness  =  6-7.  Specific  gravity  =  6.4-7.1.  Lustre  is 
adamantine,  and  crystals  usually  splendent.  Nearly  transpa- 
rent, opaque.  Fracture  subconchoidal,  uneven.  Brittle.  It 
is  infusible  before  the  blowpipe.  In  the  reducing  flame  it  is 
with  difficulty  reduced ;  but  if  soda  be  added,  the  reduction  is 
facilitated.  With  borax  it  melts  easily,  and  becomes  the  base 

t/  s 

of  an  enamel.     It  is  only  slightly  acted  on  by  acids. 

It  occurs  in  remarkable  crystals  in  Cornwall.  It  is  found  in 
Ireland,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Greenland,  Sweden,  and  in  Fin- 
land. In  the  East  Indies  it  is  found  near  Borneo,  and  in 
Australia. 

In  Bolivia,  S.  A.,  at  Oruro  tin  mines ;  in  Bolivia,  and  in 
Mexico. 

In  the  United  States,  found  sparingly  at  Paris,  Maine ;  in 
Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Virginia,  and  California. 


332 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


29.   ZINC. 
The  principal  Zinc  minerals  are : 


MINERAL. 

HAKDNESS. 

SP.  GB. 

FORMULA. 

COMPOSITION. 

Zincite                             

4—4.5 

5.43—5.7 

Zn 

Zn  80  26  O  19  74 

Sphalerite 

35  —  4 

39—42 

ZnS 

Zn  67  0  S  S3  0 

Goslarite 

2—25 

2036 

ZnS  -t-  7H 

Zn  28  2  S  27  9  H  43  9. 

Smithsonite  

5 

4-^.5 

ZnC 

Zn  64.8,  C  35.2. 

Hydrozincite    

2—25 

3.58—3.8 

ZnC+2ZnH 

Zn  75,3,  C  13.6,  H  11.1. 

ZINCITE. 

The  composition  of  Zincite  is  oxygen  19.74,  zinc  80.26  (Zn). 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


VARIETIES. 

ZN. 

MN. 

$£N. 

£E. 

1   Bed 

92 

g 

g.    "                   

88 

l 

2 

3     " 

9348 

550 

0.36,  scales  Fe  0.44. 

4  Yellow 

9947 

0.68 

—    ign.  0.23. 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Bruce. 

•'  "    2  u  Berthier  (Ann.  d.  M.,  iv,  483). 

"  "    3  "  A.  A.  Hayes  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  xlviii,  261). 

"  "    4  t*  Wt  P  Blake  (Mining  Mag.,  II,  ii,  94, 1860). 

Color  of  zincite  is  characteristic ;  it  is  a  deep  red,  sometimes 
orange-yellow.  Streak  orange-yellow.  Translucent,  subtrans- 
lucent.  Fracture  subconchoidal.  Brittle.  Hardness =4-4. 5. 
Specific  gravity  =  5.43-5.7  ;  5.684,  orange-yellow  crystals 
(W.  P.  Blake).  Bleaches  if  heated  in  a  closed  tube,  but  on 
cooling  resumes  its  natural  color.  In  the  reducing  flame  it 
gives  metallic  zinc,  which  volatilizes,  oxidizes,  and  forms  a 
white  ring.  Gives  a  green  color  with  nitrate  of  cobalt.  Shows 
reaction  for  manganese.  Soluble  in  acids. 

It  occurs  with  Franklinite  at  Stirling  Hill  and  Mine  Hill, 
Sussex  County,  N.  J. 

It  is  used  as  an  ore  of  zinc. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


333 


SPHALERITE. 

The  composition  of  Sphalerite  is  sulphur  33,  zinc  67"  (ZnS). 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

S. 

ZN. 

FB. 

CD. 

1.  Przibram  (fibrous)  
2   New  Jersey  (white) 

33.15 
3222 

61.40 
67.46 

2.29 

1.50 
Trace. 

3.  Clausthal  (black)  

33.04 

65.39 

1.18 

0.79,  Cu  0.13,  Sb  0.63. 

4  Corinthia  Raibel  (rh.  crystal). 
5.  Cb.rystopb.ite  (black)  

32.10 
3357 

64.22 

44.67 

1.32 
18.25 

Trace  ;  Sb  and  Pb  0.72,  H  0.80. 
0.28,  Mn  2.66,  Sn  trace. 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Leowe  (Pogg.,  xxxviii,  161). 

"    2  "  T.  H.  Henry  (Phil.  Mag.,  IV,  i,  23). 

"    3  "  C.  Kuhlemann  (Zs.  nat.  Ver.  Halle,  viii,  499). 
"  "    4  "  Kersten  (Pogg.,  Ixii,  132). 

u          "    5  "  Heinichen  (B.  H.  Ztg.,  xxii,  27). 

The  color  of  sphalerite  is  very  variable ;  it  is  rarely  color- 
less, but  is  generally  honey-yellow,  brown,  black,  red,  and 
green.  When  pure  it  is  generally  white  or  yellow.  Streak 
is  white,  reddish-brown.  Hardness  =  3.5-4.  Specific  grav- 
ity =  3.9-4.2 ;  4.063,  white,  New  Jersey.  Lustre  resinous  to 
adamantine.  Transparent,  translucent.  Fracture  conchoidal. 
Brittle. 

In  the  open  tube  it  gives  off  sulphurous  fumes,  and  generally 
changes  color.  In  the  oxidizing  flame  it  gives  off  sulphurous 
fumes  and  often  a  cadmium  coating.  The  roasting  is  long  and 
difficult,  and  after  it,  in  the  reducing  flame,  it  gives  a  coat  of 
zinc,  which  is  yellow  when  hot  and  white  when  cold.  Soluble 
in  hydrochloric  acid.  With  nitric  acid,  very  little  red  vapor 
is  given  off,  but  much  sulphydric  gas. 

Occurs  in  Derbyshire,  Cumberland,  Cornwall,  Transylvania, 
Hungary,  Harz ;  Salila,  in  Sweden ;  Raliebozitz,  in  Bohemia, 
etc.  Abounds  with  the  lead  ores  of  Missouri,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  and  Illinois.  Found  in  New  York,  Massachusetts,  New 
Hampshire,  Maine,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and 
Tennessee. 

Sphalerite  is  one  of , the  most  abundant  ores  of  zinc. 


334 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


SMITHSONITE. 

The  composition  of  Smithsonite  is  carbonic  acid  35.2,  oxide 
of  zinc  64.8  (ZnC). 

The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

ZN. 

FE. 

PB. 

Si. 

1.  Somersetshire  
2   Altenber01 

35.2 
35  13 

64.8 
6456 

- 

0  16 

015 

3   Moresnet  Belgium 

3378 

6306 

0.34 

1  58  H  1.28. 

4.  Altenberg  (w.  cryst.)  .... 

ZNC. 

98.24 

FEC. 
0.52 

MNC. 
0.15 

MoC. 
0.23 

CAC. 
0.20,  insol.  0.07. 

5.  Algiers...  

90.10 

1.74 

j  2.30,  PbC  0.44,   As  3.30, 

6.  Albrarradon,  Mex  

93.74 

150 

0.29 

(           Fe  1.50,  sand  0.45. 
1.48,  CuC  3.42. 

Analysis  No.  1  by  Smithson  (Nicholson's  J.,  vi,  76). 
"  "    2  "  Heidiugsfeld  (Ramm.,  5th  Suppl.) 

"  "    3  "  Schmidt  (J.  pr.  Ch..  ii,  257). 

"    4  "  H.  Risse  (Verrh,  nat.  Ver.  Bonn.,  86, 1865). 
"  "    5  "  Marigny  (Ann.  d.  M.  V.,  xi,  672). 

"          "    6  "  Genth  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  xx,  119). 


Color  of  smithsonite  may  be  white,  green,  yellow,  or  brown. 
Streak  white.  Hardness  =  5.  Specific  gravity  =  4-4.45  ; 
4.45  (Levy);  4.42  (Haidinger).  Lustre  vitreous,  inclining  to 
pearly.  Subtransparent,  translucent.  Fracture  uneven,  im- 
perfectly .conchoidal.  Brittle.  Crystallizes  in  rhombohedra 
of  107°  40'.  In  a  closed  tube,  when  heated,  loses  its  carbonic 
acid.  Infusible.  On  charcoal,  with  soda,  gives  vapors  which 
are  yellow  while  hot  and  white  when  cold.  Soluble  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  with  effervescence. 

It  is  found  at  Hertschinsk  in  Siberia,  at  Dognatzka  in  Hun- 
gary, Altenberg  near  Aix  la  Chapelle,  at  Ciguenza,  in  Scot- 
land, and  in  Ireland. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  found  at  Brookfield,  Conn.,  in 
"New  Jersey  at  Mine  Hill,  in  Pennsylvania  at  Lancaster,  in 
"Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


335 


30.   ZIRCONIUM. 

The  principal  Zirconium  mineral  is  Zircon. 

ZIRCON. 

The  composition  of  Zircon  is  zirconia  67,  silica  33  (ZrSi). 
The  following  are  a  few  analyses : 


LOCALITIES. 

Si. 

ZN. 

FE. 

CA. 

H. 

1.  Ceylon  

325 

645 

1  5 

2.  Fredericksvaru  ?)  

33.85 

64.81 

1.55 

0.88 



3.  Buncombe  Co.,  N.  C  

33.70 

65.30 

0.67 

— 

0.41 

Analysis  No.  1,  by  Klaproth  (Beitr.,  v,  126). 

"       No.  2.  by  Heuueberg  (J.  pr.  Ch.,  xxxviii,  508). 

"       No.  3,  by  C.  F.  Chandler  (Am.  J.  Sci.,  H,  xxiv,  131). 

Zircon  may  be  colorless,  pale  yellow,  brownish-yellow,  yel- 
lowish-green, reddish-brown,  gray  or  blue.  Streak  colorless. 
Hardness =7. 5.  Specific  gravity =4.05-4.75.  Lustre  adaman- 
tine. Transparent  to  subtranslucent  and  opaque.  Fracture 
conchoidal,  brilliant.  Double  refraction  strong,  positive.  It 
is  infusible.  The  red  varieties  before  the  blowpipe  lose  their 
color  without  losing  their  transparency,  and  the  dark-colored 
varieties  become  white.  It  is  thought  possible,  therefore,  that 
the  color  is  due  to  organic  matter.  Acids  do  not  affect  it,  but 
it  is  decomposed  by  fusion  with  alkaline  carbonates. 

It  is  found  in  the  alluvial  sands  in  Ceylon,  in  the  gold 
regions  of  the  Ural  near  Miask,  at  Arendal  in  Norway,  in 
Transylvania,  in  Bohemia,  Tyrol,  France,  Scotland,  Ireland, 
Greenland  and  Australia. 

In  North  America  it  is  found  in  Maine  at  Litchfield,  in 
Vermont,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
North  Carolina  and  California. 


336 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


COAL 

Coal  is  produced  by  the  spontaneous  distillation  of  wood, 
etc.,  after  life  lias  left  the  material  acted  on.  The  following  is 
the  Coal  Series. 


VEGETABLE  TISSUE,  EITHEB  HERBACEOUS  OR 

LIGNEOUS. 
PEAT. 
LIGNITE. 
BITUMINOUS. 
SEMI  BITUMINOUS. 
ANTHRACITE. 
GRAPHITIC  ANTHRACITE. 
I    GRAPHITE. 


COAL  SERIES.    4 


OHIO  RIVER. 


CUMBERLAND. 


A  =  Bituminous  Coal,         containing    50$     of  Volatile  Matter. 
B  =  Semi  "  "  "         17-25$ 

C  =  Inflammable  Anthracite     "         10-20% 
D=Lehigh  "  "  3-10$ 

E  =  Newport  Coal,  "  0-7$ 


COAL   MEASURES. 

The  following  sections,  general  and  local,  as  shown  on 
p.  337,  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  mode  of  occurrence  of 
coal  in  the  carboniferous  rocks,  and  of  the  nature  of  the  asso- 
ciated strata.  (J.  S.  dewberry,  Johnson's  Cyc.,  Article  Coal.) 

The  Brier  Hill  coal  is  the  best  bituminous  coal  in  this 
country ;  it  has  the  following  composition  : 


BRIER  HILL  COAL. 


Water 1     to 

Volatile  Combustible. .  30     to 

Fixed  Carbon 62     to  65$. 

Ash 1.5  to    3%. 

Sulphur 6  to    1$. 


The  Brazil  coal  is  the  best  coal  in  Indiana. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


337 


Carboniferous  strata— W.  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio. 


Coal  Measures— N.  Ohio. 


338 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


1 


• 


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T-I  OJ     C3     OS  C- 

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TH  GO     OS 

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CO  1O     O 

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THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


339 


If  the  empirical  formula  C34H48022  be  assigned  to  wood, 
founded  on  the  analysis  of  oak,  as  shown  above,  the  approxi- 
mate empirical  formula  for  peat  will  be  C20H2208  ;  for  Bovey 
lignite  C27H2807  ;  for  Wigan  cannel  C26H2002  ;  and  for  Welsh 
anthracite  C40H  ( 60. 

Now,  if  a  small  amount  of  oxygen,  such  as  might  be  sup- 
plied by  solution  in  water,  be  supposed  to  act  upon  the  woody 
tissue,  each  of  these  varieties  of  fuel  might  be  formed  by  the 
separation  of  marsh  gas,  carbonic  oxide,  and  water  in  the 
following  proportions  (Miller)  : 


Wood. 


Peat. 


Wood. 


4C34H480 

Wood. 


4  602  =  4C20H22O8 

Lignite. 

+  9O     —  4-P      H      O 
^U2  —    *^27n28^7 

Cannel. 


Mareh  Gas. 


24CH 


Garb. 
Anhydride. 

'32Oa 


Water. 


4H00 


Wood. 


Anthracite. 


4C. 


S0    + 


8CH4   +.20C02  +24H20 


8CH4  +  24C02+  40H20 


32C0  +  32H0. 


ESTIMATED  AREAS  OF  COAL  IN   PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES. 

(PEPPEK.) 


LOCALITIES. 

SQ.  MILES 
COAL  ABBA. 

f 

TOTAL 
?Q.  MILES. 

United  States  

196,650 

British  Provinces  of  North.  America 

7530 

>•  200,000 

Great  Britain             .        ...      .        ...          . 

5400 

- 

France    

984 

Belgium 

510 

Rhenish  Prussian  Saarbriicker  coal-field.      .          ... 

960 

Westphalia  

380 

-     8964 

Bohemia  

400 

Saxony  

30 

Spain     

200 

Russia  

100 

Assuming  a  thickness  of  20  feet  of  coal  over  200,000  square  miles,  North 
America  would  contain  4,000,000,000,000  tons  of  coal. 


340 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


ANALYSIS    OF    COALS. 

ANTHRACITE. 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

H. 

0. 

N. 

s. 

ASH. 

1    Piesberg  Hanover 

8796 

1  97 

0 

81 

931 

o          «                « 

91  14 

208 

681 

3    Pennsylvania  

9045 

243 

245 

467 

4              "              

92.59 

263 

1.61 

0.92 

225 

5             " 

8498 

245 

1  15 

1  22 

1020 

Nos.  1  and  2  by  Hilkenkamp  and  Kempner ;  3  by  Renault ;  4  and  5  by 
J.  Percy. 

BITUMINOUS. 
CAKING    COAL. 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

H. 

0. 

N. 

S. 

ASH. 

1    Zweckan  

7227 

4.16 

10.73 

0.34 

088 

1250 

2    Northumberland 

7865 

465 

1421 

055 

249 

3                 " 

8242 

482 

11  97 

086 

079 

4    River-de-Gier  

8745 

514 

393 

170 

1  78 

5.  Alais  

8927 

485 

447 

141 

No.  1  by  Stein ;  2  and  3  by  Dick ;  4  and  5  by  Regnault. 
LIGNITE    OR   BROWN    COAL. 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

H. 

0. 

N. 

s. 

ASH. 

Dax   France  .... 

7049 

559 

18 

93 

499 

Bovey  

6631 

563 

2286 

057 

236 

227 

Irkutsk  

4746 

456 

3302 

1495 

No.  1  by  Regnault ;  2  by  Vaux ;  3  by  Woskressensky. 
NON-CAKING    COAL. 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

H. 

0. 

N. 

S. 

ASH. 

1.  S.  Staffordshire  

72.13 

4.32 

17.11" 

054 

644 

2               '                .... 

7640 

462 

1743" 

055 

155 

3    Scotland         

8098 

521 

1091 

157 

063 

675 

4    Mous   France    

8295 

542 

1093 

070 

5.  Valenciennes  

90.54 

3.66 

270 

310 

- 

Nos.  1  and  2  by  Dick  ;  3  by  Rowney ;  4  and  5  by  Marsilly. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


341 


CANNEL    COAL. 


LOCALITIES. 

C. 

H. 

o. 

N. 

s. 

ASH. 

1    Wigan 

8407 

571 

782 

o  4A 

2         "                      ... 

8007 

553 

810 

212 

1  50 

o  70 

3    Tyneside    

78.06 

580 

3  12 

1  85 

222 

a  04 

No.  1  by  Regnault ;  2  by  Vaux ;  3  by  Taylor. 

NOTE. — (n)  signifies  that  the  nitrogen  is  included  in  the  oxygen. 


The  following  table  is  taken  from  "  Report  on  Coals  to  Con- 
gress, 1844,"  by  Prof.  W.  E.  Johnson : 


LOCALITIES. 

SPECIFIC 
GBAVITT. 

VOLUME 
COMBUST. 

MATTER. 

FIXED 
CABBON. 

ASH  AND 
CLINKEKS 

Pennsylvania  (anthracite)  

1  590-1  610 

3  84 

87  45 

7  37 

Maryland  (free-burning  bitum.  coal). 
Pennsylvania     "                  " 
Virginia 
Pittsburg  (bituminous  coal)  

1.3-1.414 
1.3-1.407 
1.29-1.45 
1  252 

15.80 
17.01 
36.63 

36  76 

73*01 

68.82 
50.99 
54  93 

9.74 
13.35 
10.74 

7  07 

Cannelton    Ind 

1  273 

33  99 

FJQ  44 

4  Q7 

Pictou   Nova  Scotia         ... 

1  318 

27  83 

56  98 

1Q  QQ 

«                 «                ti 

1  325 

25  97 

60  74 

12  51 

ANALYSIS    OF  THE   ASHES   OF  COAL 
(Percentage  of  ash  in  the  coal  was  1.99.) 

(By  KREMER.) 

Silica 15.48 

Alumina 5.28 

Peroxide  of  iron 74.02 

Lime 2.26 

Magnesia 0.26 

Potash 0.53 

Soda — 

Sulphate  of  lime 2.17 

Total..                                         .  100.00 


\ 


342 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


DURABILITY   OF    DIFFERENT    WOODS. 

Experiments  on  this  subject  have  been  made  on  various 
kinds  of  wood,  of  which  sticks  2  feet  long  and  1 J  inches  square 
were  cut,  and  driven  into  the  ground  until  but  1£  inches 
projected. 

The  results  were  as  follows  : 


KIND  OP  WOOD. 

CONDITION  AFTER  2j  YRS. 

CONDITION  AFTER  5  YEARS. 

Chestnut  oak 

Very  good      ...    . 

j  Most  specimens  moderately, 

Canada  chestnut  oak 
Oak  from  Memel.  .  .  . 

Very  much  attacked.  . 

(      some  very  much  attacked. 
Very  bad,  rotten. 
The  same. 

Oak  from  Dantzic.  .  . 

The  same  

Exceedingly  bad. 

Hard,  mahogany 

Good 

Tolerable 

Soft  mahogany 

Much  attacked  .  . 

Verv  bad  entirely  rotten. 

Cedar  of  Lebanon. 

Good  

Tolerable 

(  Very  good,  the  same  as  when 

The  same 

(      first  put  in. 
Somewhat  soft  but  good. 

Fir     

Much  attacked 

Much  rotted 

Pine 

Very  much  attacked 

The  same 

Virginia  pine             . 

Attacked  . 

The  same 

Hard  pine     

j  •$•  in.  attacked,  the  | 

j  £  inch  attacked,  the  rest  tol- 

Soft  pine  

(     rest  good  j" 
Much  rotted 

(     erable. 
Much  rotted 

(  ^  in.  on  the  surface  ) 
-(  attacked  •  had  lost  > 

f  £  inch  much,  the  rest  a  little 

1      attacked. 

English,  elm  

Much  rotted  .  . 

Entirely  rotten 

Canadian  elm  

The  same  

Rotten 

The  same  

The  same 

Acacia         .      .    .... 

j  Good,   except  loss  ^ 

j  £  inch  rotted,   the    rest    as 

i     in  weifrht  .      .  .  C 

i      sound  as  when  first  put  in 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


343 


PRODUCTS  OBTAINED  FROM  DISTILLATION  OF  COAL. 


Gas,  illuminating,  etc. 

Tar ... 

Ammonia  Water. 
Coke,  for  fuel. 


Oils, 


Naphtha  • 


RO«™IO  J  Benzole  i  j  Used  to  make 
Benzole  -jTomol    f-j     AniliDe> 

Naphtha  —  Used  for  Varnishes. 
Xylole  ......  Used  for  Small  Pox. 


FUBNISHES 


.Carbolic  Acid  |  ,Used  for 
CresylicAcidP  fectants' 
Naphthalene Dyes,  etc. 


Pitch,  1Q%.  •{ 

(  Anthracene, 


Dead  Oil 


I  Chrysene No  use  as  yet. 

Used  for  Roofing  and  Pavements. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  products  from  the  distillation 
of  coal  (Chandler*) : 

I.   COKE. 

Per  cent. 

1.  Carbon 90—95 

2.  Sulphide  of  iron  (Fe7S8) 3—10 

3.  Ash 3—15 

II.  AMMONIA    WATER. 

1.  Hydro-ammonic  carbonate NH4HCO3. 

2.  Ammonic  hydrosulphate NH4HS. 

8.  Ammonic  sulphocyanide NH4CNS. 

4.  Ammonic  cyanide NH4CN. 

5.  Ammonic  chloride NH4C1. 

III.   TAR. 

1.  Hydrocarbons. 
Formula.  Sp.  Or.  Boiling  Points. 

1.  Benzol C6H6     . ... .     .850  ....       82°C.=  179°.6F. 

2.  Toluol,  methyl-benzol....     C7H8     870  ....  111°     =  231°.8 

3.  Ethyl-benzol.... C8H10....       —  ....  132°     =  269°.6 

4.  Xylol,  di-methyl-benzol. . .     C8H,  0 867  ....  140°     =  284° 

5.  Cumol,  propyl-benzol C9H,  2 870  . . .  153°     =  307°.4 

6.  Methyl-ethyl-benzol C9H12   —  ....  160°     =320° 


Johnson's  Cycl.,  Article  Gas-Lighting. 


344  THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

Formula.              Sp.  Gr.  Boiling  Points. 

7.  Tri-methyl-benzol  (pseu- 

documol,  mesetylene.     C9  H12     —     166°C.=  330°.8F. 

8.  Isobutyl-benzol C,  0Hi 4     159°  =  318°.2 

9.  Cymol,      metliyl-propyl- 

benzol C10H14     861....  178°  -  352°.4 

10.  Di-ethyl-benzol C, 0H14     —     178°  =  352°.4 

11.  Di-methyl-ethyl-benzol 

(ethyl-xylol) CIOHI4     ....      —     ....  184°  =  363°.2 

12.  Amyl-benzol C^  ,H, 6     859  ....  193°  =  379°.4 

13.  Methyl-amyl-benzol C, 2Hi 8     —     213°  =  415°.4 

14.  Di-methyl-amyl-benzol 

(amyl-xylol) C,  3H2  0     —     232°  =  449°.6 

15.  Phenylene C6  H4       ....      —     91°  =  195°.8 

16.  Cinnamene,  styrolene...     C8  H8       924 145°  =293° 

17.  Naphthalene C, 0H8       ....  1.153 220°  =  428° 

18.  Di-phenyl C, 2H, 0     ....      —     ....  240°  =  464° 

19.  Anthracene C,4H10     ....1.147....  300°  =572° 

20.  Pyrene C16HJO     ....              — 

21.  Chrysene    ..    C18H12     —     — 

22.  Benzerytherene —     .... 

And  probably : 

23.  Quintane C5H12      ....0.60     ....  30°  =    86° 

24.  Sextane C6H14      669....  68°  =  154°.4 

25.  Other  paraffines CnH2n+2    —     

26.  Quintene,  amylene C5H,  0      —     ....  35°  =    95° 

27.  Sextene C6H12      ....     —     ....  68°  =  154° .4 

28.  Other  olifines CnH2n       —     

29.  Quintine,  valerylene . . . .      C5H8        ....      —     46°  =  114°.8 

30.  Sextine,  diallyl C6H, 0      ....             ....  58°  =  136°.4 

31.  Other  acetylenes CnH2n-2      ...      —     — 

32.  Dipropyl (C3H7)2     678....  68°  =  154°.4 

33.  Dibutyl (C4H9)2     706  ....  106°  =  222°.8 

34.  Diamyl (C8HM)2 741....  158°  =  316°.4 

35.  Dicaproyl (C6H13)2 757....  202°  =  395°.6 

36.  Other  alcohol  radicals. . .  (CnH2n+i)3    —     — 

2.  Alcohols. 

1.  Phenol,  carbolic  acid. . . .  C6  H5  OH  ....  1.065 180°  =  356° 

2.  Cresol,  cresylic  acid C7  H7  OH  . . . .      —     200°  =  392° 

3.  Phlorol,  phlorylic  acid. .  C8  H9  OH  ....   1.037  ....  195°  =  383° 

4.  Xylenol C8H9OH....      —     ....  213°.5  =  416° 

5.  Thymol C10H13OH....      —     ....  220°  =  428° 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  345 

Formula.  Sp.  Gr.  Boiling  Points. 

6.  Methyl-thymol CnH^OH —     ....      — 

7.  Ethyl-thymol C12H17OH....      —     ....       — 

8.  Amyl-thymol (^  6H3  3OH —    — 

3.  Acids. 

1.  Acetic H.C2H3O2 1.062 117°.2  =  243° 

2.  Butyric H.C4H7O2 9817 164°     =  327°.2 

3.  Rosolic C20H16O3....      —     ....      — 

4.  Brunolic ?  —     ....       — 

4.  Bases. 

1.  Ammonia H3N        ....      Gas  ....       — 

2.  Methylamine. CH5N      Gas — 

3.  Ethylamine C2  H7  N 696....      19°     =    16°.2 

4.  Diethylamine C4HuN —     ....       57°.5  =  135°.5 

5.  Aniline,  phenylamine...    C6  H7  N 1.028 '  182°     =  359°.6 

6.  Toliudine C8  H9  N  . . . .     —     205°     =  401° 

7.  Xylidine CgH^N —     215°     -419° 

8.  Oumidine C10H13N 952 225°     =437° 

9.  Cynudine CnH15N....      —     250°     =482° 

10.  Pyridine C8  H5  N 985....  117°     =  242°.6 

11.  Picoline C6  H7  N 961  ....  133°     =  271°.4 

12.  Lutidine C7  H9  N 946  ....  154°     =  309°.2 

13.  Collidine C8  H,,N 921....  179°     =  354°.2 

14.  Parvoline C9  H, 3N —     188°     =  370°.4 

15.  Coridine C10H15N....      —     211°     =  411°.8 

16.  Rubidine CltHI7N  ....  1.017  ....  230°     =  446° 

17.  Viridine C12H19N  ....  1.017  ....  251°     =  483°.8 

18.  Pyrrol C4  H5  N  ....  1.077  ....  133°     =  371°.4 

19.  Leucoline,  chinoline C9  H7  N 1.081  ....  238°     =  460° .4 

20.  Iridoline,  lepidine. CIOH9N —     — 

21.  Cryptidine,  dispoline C^HuN —     273°.9  =  525° 

5.  Pitch. 

Oxidized  bituminous  bodies,  whose  nature  has  not  been  accurately  de- 
termined. 

IV.   GAS. 

1.  Luminants. 

Formula.  Density. 

1.  Vapors  of  paramnes CnH2n+2      — 

2.  Propyl (C3H7)2      

3.  Other  alcohol  radicals (CnH2n+i2)     — 


346  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Formula.  Density. 

4.  Olefiant  gas,  ethene C2H4  976 

5.  Propene C3H6  1.490 

6.  Butene C4H8  1.940 

7.  Vapors  of  other  olifines CnH2n  — 

8.  Acetylene C2H2  920 

9.  Vapors  of  other  acetylenes  (?) CnH2n-2  — 

10.  Valelene  (?) .  CnH2n_4  — 

11.  Benzole C6H6  2.71 

12.  Vapors  of  toluol,  xylol,  etc CnH2n-6  — 

13.  Phenylene,  etc.  (?) CnH2n_8  — 

14.  Cuinamene,  etc.  (?) CnHsn— 10  — 

15.  Naphthalene d  0H8  — 

16.  Diphenyl,  etc.  (?) C12H10  — 

17.  Anthracene  (?) C,  4H,  0  — 

18.  Pyrene(?) CI6H10  - 

19.  Chrysene(?) C18H12  — 

20.  Phenol,  etc.  (Alcohols) CnH2n_7OH  — 

21.  Bases  above  mentioned — 

2.  Diluents. 

1.  Hydrogen H  0691 

2.  Marsh-gas,  methene CH4  . . , 5594 

3.  Carbonic  oxide CO  9727 

3.  Impurities. 

1.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen H3S  1.1747 

2.  Ammonic  sulphydrate NH4HS  — 

3.  Carbon  di-sulphide CS2  — 

4.  Carbon  oxysulphide CSO  — 

5.  Sulphurous  oxide SO2  — 

6.  Mercaptan,  etc C2H5HS  — 

7.  Sulphur  bases,  etc — 

8.  Ammonic  sulpho-cyanide NH4CNS  — 

9.  Ammonic  cyanide NH4CN — 

10.  Ammonic  mcwo-carbonate NH4HC03  — 

11.  Carbonic  oxide C02  1.5240 

12.  Nitrogen N  9760 

13.  Oxygen O  1.1026 

14.  Aqueous  vapor  (water) H20  6201 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


347 


PRODUCTS   OF  COAL 

(MOLESWORTH.) 


PRODUCTS. 


NEWCASTLE. 


From. 


To. 


CANNEL. 


From. 


To. 


Cube  feet  of  gas  per  ton  of  coal. . 9,500  10,000  11,500  15,000 

Pounds  of  coke 1,500  1,540  715  720 

Pounds  of  tar 70  90  710  720 

Pounds  of  ammoniacal  liquor 80  120 

Fuel  required  for  retorts,  about  20  Ibs.  per  cwt. 

AVERAGE    EVAPORATING    POWER. 

(MOLESWOKTH.) 

1  lb.  of  coal    evaporates 9  Ibs.  of  water.* 

1  lb.  of  coke  "        9 

1  lb.  of  slack          *         4 

1  lb.  of  oak  (dry)    "        4fc      " 

1  lb.  of  pine  "        2i      " 

Coal  loses  about  one-third  of  its  weight  in  coking,  but  increases  in  bulk 
one-tenth. 

PEAT. 

IN  100  PARTS.  C.  H.         O  AND  N.       ASH.  HaO.        SP.  GR. 

Condensed  Peat. ...      47.2  4.9          22.9  5.0          20.0          1.20 

Wood.. 39.6  4.8          34.8  0.8          20.0         0.75 

Anthracite 91.3  2.9  2.8  3.0  —  1.40 

(Taken  from  a  book  on  Peat  and  its  Uses,  by  S.  W.  Johnson,  A.  M.) 

HEATING    POWER   OF   DIFFERENT   KINDS  OF   FUEL 

(JOHNSON.) 

(The  comparison  is  made  in  units  of  heat,f  and  refers  to  equal  weights 
of  the  materials  experimented  on.) 

Air-dried  wood 2800 

"      "     peat 2500—3000 

Perfectly  dry  wood 3600 


*  Feed- water  supplied  at  212°  F. 

f  The  amount  of  heat  that  will  raise  the  temperature  of  one  gram  of 
water  one  degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer,  is  agreed  upon  as  the 
unit  of  heat. 


348 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


Perfectly  dry  peat 3000—4000 

Air  dry  lignite  or  brown  coal 3300—4200 

Perfectly  dry  lignite  or  brown  coal 4000—5000 

Bituminous  coal 3800—7000 

Anthracite . . 7500 

Wood  charcoal 6300-7500 

Coke..  6500—7000 


PETROLEUM, 


COAL. 


COAL. 


Conglomerate.         \ 

LOWER  CARBONIFEROUS.  \ 
\ 

Flag  Eock. 


OIL   CREEK 
REGION. 


/         Conglomerate. 
LOWER  CARBONIFEROUS. 


Flag  Rock. 


Shale. 

I 

T 

*" 

Shale. 

Sandstone  No.  1.               £ 

Sandstone  No.  1. 

Shale. 

d 

Shale. 

Sandstone  No.  2. 

\ 

i 

) 

Sandstone  No.  2. 

Shale. 

Shale. 

Sandstone  No.  3. 

s 

) 

Sandstone  No.  3. 

Shale. 

Shale. 

Sandstone  No.  4.               x- 

- 

? 

Sandstone  No.  4. 

Portage. 

Portage. 

PETROLEUM    CAVITY. 


If  a  petroleum  cavity  be  struck  at  (A),  it  often  happens  that 
the  gas  rushes  out  with  such  a  velocity  that  all  the  tools  are 
blown  out  of  the  shaft.  If  struck  at  (B),  petroleum  oil  will 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


349 


rush  out,  having  a  specific  gravity  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft 
of  50°  B. ;  and  at  the  top  29°  B.  One  cavity  has  been  known 
to  give  100,000  barrels  of  oil  before  dry.  If  the  cavity  is 
struck  at  (c),  water  will  first  come  out,  then  oil. 

The  town  of  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  has  been  lighted  by  gas 
obtained  from  a  petroleum  cavity  for  the  last  40  years.  Several 
buildings  at  Erie,  N".  Y.,  are  also  lighted  from  gas  wells. 

PETROLEUM  is  found  all  the  time  by  the  decomposition  of 
animal  and  vegetable  substances.  The  formation  of  petroleum 
may  be  noticed  around  the  edges  of  stagnant  pools,  etc. 

PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATION  OF  CRUDE  PETROLEUM. 

(BY  C.  F.  CHANDLER.) 
Price  in  Bulk,  14  cents  per  Gallon. 


ft 

PRICE  PER. 

£  t> 

tt  Q 

GALLON. 

3*1 

P-3  U 

—  — 
OM 

NAME. 

|1 

GRAVITY, 

UNCONDENSED,  Loss. 

4 

Gases. 

E* 

BEAUME. 

c 

j 

1 

115°  B. 
to 
105°  B. 

(Cymogene  .. 

110° 

(  Condensed  by  pump,  made  i 
•<     by  one  firm  only  for  an  ice  >- 
(     machine,  boils  at  32°  F.    ) 

$1  50 

105°  B. 

(  Condensed  by  ice  and  salt,  ) 

to 

>•  Rhigolene      . 

100° 

•<     used   as   an  anaesthetic  >• 

$1  00 

95°  B. 

1     boils  at  65°  F.                 '  f 

95°  B. 

to 
80°  B. 

L  Gasolene 

11 

85°  to  90° 

C  Condensed  in  worm  by  cold  ~) 
j      water,  used  in  "air  gas  i 
machines  "  and  gas  lk  car-  f 
[    bonizers."                         J 

35  cts. 
to 
18  cts. 

f  For  oil  cloths,  cleaning,  etc.  ;  1 

80°  B. 
to 
65°  B. 

vNapltha  

10 

71°  to  76° 

so-called    "  Safety    oil,"  I 
u  Danforth's  oil,"  "Amer-  1 
~\     ican    Safety    Gas,"  etc.  ;  f 
for  adulterating  kerosene; 

7  cts. 
to 
Sets. 

18  cts. 
to 

20  cts. 

[    cleaning  oil  wells.             J 

65°  B. 
to 
60°  B. 

[•Benzine  

4 

62°  to  65° 

For  paints  and  varnishes  —  •< 

16  cts. 
to 
12  cts. 

20  cts. 
to 
16  cts. 

60°  B. 
to 

OOO   T> 
OO      -D. 

(Kerosene  or     ) 
Refined         [• 
Petroleum.      ) 

55 

46° 

Ordinary  oil  for  lamps  •< 

20  cts. 
to 
25  cts. 

30  cts. 
to 
40  cts. 

38°  B. 
to 

25°  B. 

I  Paraffin  oil  

* 

39° 

f  Semi-solid      when      cold.  'I 
I     Chilled   and    pressed  to  1 
|     separate  paraffin,  oil  used  f 
(_    for  lubricating                  J 

18  cts. 
to 
14  cts. 

Coke,  gas,  and  loss  . 

10 

Total  

100 

350 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


SCALE   OF   HARDNESS. 

(MOHS.) 

1.  TALC.— Laminated  light-green  variety.     Easily  scratched  by  the  nail. 

2.  GYPSUM. — Crystallized  variety.     Not  easily  scratched  by  the  nail.     Does. 

not  scratch  a  copper  coin. 

3.  CALCITE. — Transparent  variety.     Scratches  and  is  scratched  by  a  cop- 

per coin. 

4.  FLUOR. — Crystalline  variely.    Not  scratched  by  a  copper  coin.     Does 

not  scratch  glass. 

5.  APATITE. — Transparent  variety.    Scratches  glass  with  difficulty.    Easily 

scratched  by  the  knife. 

6.  ORTHOCLASE. — White  cleavable  variety.    Scratches  glass  easily.    Not 

easily  scratched  by  the  knife. 

7.  QUARTZ. — Transparent  variety.     Not  scratched  by  knife.     Yields  with 

difficulty  to  the  file. 

8.  TOPAZ. — Transparent  variety.     Harder  than  flint. 

9.  SAPPHIRE. — Cleavable  varieties.     Harder  than  flint. 
10.  DIAMOND.— Harder  than  flint. 


THE    HARDNESS   OF  A   FEW   SUBSTANCES  ARRANGED. 


Diamond 10 

Euby 9 

Cymophane 8.5 

Topaz 8 

Spinel 8 

Emerald 8 

Garnet 7.5 

Dicroite , 7.5 

Zircon 7 

Peridote 7 

Quartz 7 

Tourmaline 7 

Opal 6.5-5.5 


Lapis  Lazuli 6 

Feldspar 6 

Amphibole 5.5 

Phosphorite  . . . 5 

Fluorspar 4 

Coelestine 3.5 

Barytes 3.5 

Carbonate  Lime 3. 

Mica 2.5 

Gypsum 2 

Chlorite 1.5, 

Talc. .  1 


V 


STOICHIOMETRICAL  CALCULATIONS. 

Exam/pie.*  —  What  is  the  percentage  composition  of  calcic 
sulphate,  CaS04  ? 

Molecular  weight  =  m. 
Atomic          "       of  any  constituent  =  a. 
Number  of  atoms  of  that  constituent  =  n. 
Percentage  amount  =  x. 

m  :   an  :  :   100  :  x. 
By  the  formula,  the  molecule  contains  of 

Calcium,  one  atom  (atomic  weight,  40)  .....  40 
Sulphur,  "  "  Xatorm'c  weight,  32)  .....  32 
Oxygen,  four  atoms  (atomic  weight,  16)  .....  64 
Molecular  weight  of  calcic  sulphate  .......  136 

T-,  an  x  100. 

From  above  proportion.  x  =  - 

m 

Substituting  in  this  formula,  the  quantity  of 

Calcium  in  100  parts  is  -  --  —  =  29.41. 


Sulphur  «     "       «     «  =  23.53. 

lob 


Oxygen    «     «       «     «  =  47'06 


100.00 

Example.  —  What  is  the  forjmstLa.  of  quartz,  its  molecular 
weight  being  60,  and  its  percentage  composition  being  : 
Silicon    .........  .............  46.67 

Oxygen  ......................  53.38 

100.00 

*  All  the  following  examples  are  from  Barker's  Chemistry. 


354  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

The  atomic  weight  of  silicon  is  28 ;  hence  the  number  of 
atoms  of 

,,-.'/  rnx  \  60  x  46.67 

Silicon  would  be  (n  =  ^-——l- 

/  mx  v60  x  53.33 

Oxygen     «       "    (n=T75r-)-?7rS  — ^  =2 


The  molecular  formula  of  quartz  is  therefore  Si02. 

Example.  —  The  molecular  weight  of  argentic  nitrate  is  170  ; 
it  contains  63.53  per  cent,  of  silver,  and  has  but  one  atom  of 
silver  in  a  molecule.  What  is  the  atomic  weightof  silver  f 

mx        170  x  63.53 

We  have  a  =  -    -  or  -  -  =  108. 

100  x  1 


Hence  the  atomic  weight  of  silver  is  108. 

Example.  —  Salt  contains  39.32  per  cent,  of  sodium,  whose 
atomic  weight  is  23.  In  a  molecule  of  salt  there  is  but  one 
atom  of  sodium.  What  is  the  molecular  weight  of  salt  f 

an  x  100       23  x  1  x  100 
We  have  m  —  -  —  or  --  .  Q        -  =  58.5. 

X  OO.OA 

The  molecular  weight  of  salt  is  therefore  58.5. 
Again,  ferric  oxide  contains  three  atoms  of  oxygen,  or  30 
per  cent.      What  is  its  molecular  weiahLf  * 


Therefore  160  is  the  molecular  weight. 

Example.  —  Ammonic  nitrate  NH4N03,  breaks  up  under  the 
influence  of  heat  into  one  molecule  of  nitrogen  oxide,  N2O, 
and  two  molecules  of  (H20)2.  How  much  nitrogen  oxide  in 
100  parts  of  ammonic  hydrate  f 

In  formula  using  (a)  to  indicate  the  weight  of  the  group, 
and  (n)  the  number  of  such  group  in  the  molecule 

an  x  100  44  x  1  x  100 

--  =  formula,  we  have  -  -  —  55. 

m  80 

Hence  ammonic  nitrate  yields  55  per  cent,  of  nitrogen 
oxide. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  355 

Example.  —  How  much  iodine  may  be  obtained  from  236 
grams  of  potassic  iodide  (Kl),  the  atomic  weight  of  iodine 
being  127,  and  the  molecular  weight  of  potassic  iodide  166  ? 

By  proportion.  —  As  166  parts  of  Kl  give  127  of  I,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  quantity  given  by  236  parts  would  be  given 
by  the  proportion  : 

166   :   236   :  :   127   :  y. 
y  =  180.5.     Answer,  180.5  grams  iodine. 

,    f        ,  au  x  z  127  x  236 

By  formula,  y=-       -\  substituting  therefore  y  = 


=  180.5.     Hence  236  grams  potassic  iodide  yield  180.5  grams 
iodine. 

Example.  —  How  much  potassic  iodide  would  be  required 
to  yield  78  grams  of  iodine  ? 

s  =  --    —  -j   substituting  z  =  —  =-«=  —  =  102.     Answer,  102 
grams  potassic  iodide. 

CALCULATION    FROM   EQUATIONS. 

Examples.  —  Nitric  acid  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  upon  potassic  nitrate  (KN03),  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing equation  : 

KN03  +  H2S04=HN03  +  HKS04. 
101   +     98     =    63    +    136. 

Problem  1st.—  125  grams  of  nitre  yield  77.97  grams  of 
HN03,  whose  molecular  weight  is  63.  WAatj&.t/ie.  molecular 
weight  of  potassic  nitrate  f 

Representing  by  M,  the  molecular  weight  of  substance 
given,  by  "W,  the  absolute  weight  of  this  substance  given  in 
the  problem,  by  m,  the  molecular  weight  of  the  substance  re- 
quired, and  by  w,.  the  absolute  weight  of  this  substance,  then, 
M  :  W  :  :  m  :  w  ;  from  which  the  following  formulas  may 
be  derived  : 

...      ^      M^,_.  Mw/0.  raW 

(1);   W.=  —  (2);   ,71  =  --  (3);   ^  =  --(4) 


. 


356  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

In  Problem  1st,  m  =  63,  W  equals  125,  and  w  =  77.97; 

,r       63  x  125 

hence  M  =  —^,-^=-  =  1  01,  Answer. 
i  <  •«/  1 

Problem  %d.  —  The  molecular  weight  of  nitre  is  101,  and 
that  of  nitric  acid  is  63  ;  how  much  nitre  would  be  required  to 
yield  77.97  grams  nitric  acid  ? 

Here  the  quantities  being  represented  as  before,  we  have  : 

w      101  x  77.97 

W  =  -  -  =  125,-  Answer. 

Do 

Problem  3d.  —  125  grams  of  nitre  yield  77.97  grams  nitric 
acid.  The  molecular  weight  of  nitre  is  101.  What  is  the 
molecular  weight  of  HN03  ? 

101  x  77.97 
In  this  problem,  m  =  -  -  =  63,  Answer. 


Problem  kth  .—The  molecular  weight  of  nitre  is  101,  and 
that  of  HN03  is  63.  How  much  HN03  would  125  grams  of 
nitre  yield  ? 

^r    ,  63  x  125 

We  have  w  =  —    -.  —  =  77.97  grams,  Answer. 


Problem  5th.  —  How  much  nitre  is  necessary  to  yield  36 
grams  of  HN03? 

_      M  w    ^      101  x  36 

W  =  -   -  ;  W  =  --  -^  —  =57.7  grams,  Answer. 

1)1  to  O 

Prollem  §th.  —  How  much  sulphuric  acid  required  in  last 
problem  ? 

Here  M  =  98  ;  hence  W  =  —  -^  —  =  56  grams,  Answer. 

tod 

Problem  7th.  —  How  much  hydropotassic  sulphate  will  be 
produced  in  Problem  \st  f 

M  =  136  ;  hence  W  =  —  gg—  -  -  =  77.7  grams,  Answer. 

The  last  three  problems  w^ere  solved  by  formula  (2)  ;  the 
following  ones  will  be  solved  by  formula  (4).  Formula  (2) 
and  (4)  are  usually  employed. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  357 

Problem  Sth.  —  How  much  nitric   acid  may  be  produced 
from  500  grams  of  KN03  2 

mW      63  x  500 
it)  =  -r-  =  —  zj-r-  —  =  311.88  grams,  Answer. 


Problem  9th.  —  How  much  H2S04  will  be  required  to  de- 
compose 500  grams  of  nitre  ? 

Here  m  =  98  ;  hence  w  =  —      —  -  =  485.15  grams,  Answer. 


Problem  10th.  —  How  much  hydropotassic  sulphate  would  be 
yielded  by  the  decomposition  of  500  grams  of  KN03  by  H2S04  ? 

In  this  problem,  m  =  136  ;  hence  w  =  --TJTJ  --  =  673.27 
grams,  Answer. 

VOLUME  CALCULATIONS 

Problem  1st.  —  How  much  carbonic  dioxide  is  formed  by 
combustion  of  1  litre  of  carbonous  oxide  ? 

As  4  volumes  carbonous  oxide  yield  4  of  carbonic  dioxide, 
1  volume  will  yield  1  volume,  and  1  litre  of  course  1  litre, 
Answer. 

Problem  %d.—  How  much  oxygen  is  needed  to  convert  2 
litres  carbonous  oxide  to  carbonic  dioxide? 

4  volumes  by  the  equation  require  2  of  oxygen;  hence  2 
litres  will  require  1  litre  of  oxygen,"  Answer. 

Problem  3d.  —  To  form  100  cubic  centimetres  of  carbonic 
dioxide,  how  much  carbonous  oxide  must  be  burned  ? 

4  volumes  of  carbonic  dioxide  require  the  combustion  of 
4*  of  carbonous  oxide  ;  100  cubic  centimetres  will  require  its 
own  volume  therefore,  or  100  cubic  centimetres,  Answer. 

RELATION    OF  WEIGHT  TO   VOLUME. 

Example  1st.  —  What  volume  is  occupied  by  6.08  grams  of 
oxygen  gas  ? 

The  weight  of  1  litre  of  oxygen  is  1.43  grams  ;  hence  in  6.08 
grams  there  will  be  as  many  litres  as  1.43  is  contained  times 
in  6.08  ;  or  4.25  litres,  Answer. 


358  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Example  2d. — What  is  the  weight  of  25  litres  of  nitrogen 
i 


1  litre  of  nitrogen  gas  weighs  1.2G  grams  ;  1.26  x  25  =  31.5  ; 
hence  25  litres  of  nitrogen  weigh  31.5  grams,  Answer. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITIES. 

Example.  —  What  is  the  specific  gravity  of  chlorine  gas  ? 
The  molecular  weight  of  chlorine  is  71  ;  its  density  there- 

fore is  -^  or  35.5.      35.5  x  0.0693  =  2.46  (0.0693  Sp.  Gr.  of 

2i 

hydrogen  gas).  Chlorine  gas  is  therefore  2.46  times  heavier 
than  air. 

Problem.  —  The  specific  gravity  of  ammonia  gas  is  0.589. 
What  is  its  molecular  weight? 

If  the  specific  gravity  is  0.589,  its  density  is  0.589  -f-  0.0693, 
or  8.5.  Hence  its  molecular  weight  is  8.5  x  2  or  17. 

GASEOUS  VOLUMES   FOR   PRESSURE. 

Example.—  What  is  the  true  volume  which  250  cubic  centi- 
metres of  hydrogen  measured  at  742  millimetres  would  have,  if 
measured  at  760  millimetres  ? 

If  the  volume  of  a  gas  under"  the  height  H  of  the  barometric 
column  be  represented  by  Y,  and  under  any  other  height  H'  by 


V,  then  Y  :  V  :  :  II'  :  H  ;  whence  YH  =  Y'H'  or  Y'  = 

Substituting  in  the  formula 

742 
V  =  250  x  rt      =  244  cubic  centimetres,  Answer. 


Example.  —  A  certain  volume  of  nitrogen  dioxide  gas,  under 
a  pressure  of  781  millimetres,  measured  542  cubic  centimetres. 
What  is  its  true  volume,  measured  at  760  millimetres  ? 

Substituting  in  formula 

781 
Y'  =  542  x         =  578.3  cubic  centimetres,  Answer. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  359 

GASEOUS  VOLUMES   FOR  TEMPERATURE. 

In  general,  if  Y  represent  the  known  volume,  V  the  un- 
known volume,  and  t  the  number  of  degrees  the  temperature 
is  raised  or  lowered,  the  formula  for  calculating  an  increase  of 
volume  will  be  :  • 

V'=  Y  x  (1  x  t  x  -003665). 
For  lower  temperature : 

V 
Y=  (T+  t  x  -003665)* 

Example. — A  gas  measures  15  cubic  centimetres  at  0°.    What 
will  it  measure  at  60°  ? 
Substituting  in  formula, 

V'=_-  15  x  (1  +  60  x  -003665)  =  18.298  c.c.,  Answer. 

Example. — What  will  a  gas  measure  at  0°,  which,  at  100, 
measures  40.1  cubic  centimetres  ? 

40  1 
V=  (1  +  100  x  -003665)  =  29'345  C'C"  AnSWer' 

A  gas  measures  560  cubic  centimetres,  at  15°.  What  will 
it  measure  at  95°  ? 

Here  t°=  95  —  15  =  80.     Hence, 

V'=  560  x  (1  +  80  x  -003665)  =  724.2  c.c.,  Answer. 


360 


TABLE*      OF 

W  or  w— soluble  in  water.  A  or  a— insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  acids  (HC1,HNO3 
but  soluble  in  acids.  W-I— sparingly  soluble  in  water  and  acids.  A-I- insoluble  in 
refer  to  notes,  p.  362. 


1 

C3 

>> 

fij 

. 

.3 

"H 

§ 

j 

,a 

§ 

d 

p 

. 

2 

1 

O 

B 

.1 

| 

p 

1 

i 

Q 

1 

1 

S 

Cu 

S 

1 

3 

a 

<3 

"p 
<! 

1 

3 

a 

a 

0 

§ 

6 

P 

Acetate... 

W 

w 

W 

w 

w 

a 

w 

w 

w 

w 

Arseniate  . 

a 

w 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

Arsenite.  .  . 

w 

a 

a 

a 

a 

A 

a 

Benzoate.. 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

a 

w 

Borate  

a 

w 

a 

a 

w-a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

Bromide.  .  . 

w 

W 

w-a 

w 

w-a 

w 

w 

w&i 

w 

w 

w 

Carbonate. 

a 

W 

A 

A 

a 

A 

a 

A 

A 

A 

Chlorate.  .  . 

w 

w 

W 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

Chloride.  . 

w 

W3.4 

W-A10 

W 

W-A14 

W 

W 

W&I 

W 

W 

W 

Chromate.. 

w 

a 

a 

a 

a 

w-a 

a 

a 

w 

Citrate  .  .  . 

w 

w 

a 

a 

w-a 

w 

w 

w 

w 

Cyanide  .  .  . 

w 

w-a 

a 

w 

a 

a-i 

a 

a-i 

Ferricy'de. 

w 

w 

i 

I 

Ferrocy'de 

w 

w-a 

w 

i 

i 

i 

Fluoride.  .  . 

w 

W 

w 

a-i 

w 

w-a 

A 

w 

w-a 

a 

w-a 

Formate  .  . 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

Hydroxide 

A 

W 

A 

W 

a 

a 

W-A 

A 

A 

a 

a 

Iodide  

w 

W 

w-a 

w 

a 

W 

w 

w 

w 

w 

W 

Malate  .... 

w 

w 

w&a 

w&a 

Nitrate.... 

w 

W 

W 

W15 

w 

w 

W 

W 

W 

W 

Oxalate.... 

a 

W 

a 

a 

a 

a 

A 

w-a 

A 

a 

a 

Oxide  

A&I 

an 

W 

a 

a 

W&A 

A&I 

A 

A 

a 

Phosphate. 

a 

Ws.6 

w-a 

w&a 

a 

a 

W&A 

a 

a 

a 

a 

Silicate  

A-I 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

Succinate.. 

w-a 

W 

w-a 

w 

w-a 

w-a 

w-a 

w 

Sulphate  .  . 

w,., 

W2.7.8 

a 

A 

w 

W 

W-I 

W&A17 

WJ8 

W 

W7 

Sulphide.. 

a 

W 

AI  2-  16 

W 

a 

A 

W-A 

a-i 

a 

A 

A 

Tartrate... 

w 

W9 

als 

a 

a 

w-a 

a 

w 

w 

w 

w-a 

From  Qualitative  Analysis  (Freseniub). 


361 


SOLUBILITY. 


and  aqua  regia).    I  or  i— insoluble  in  water  and  acids.    W- A— sparingly  soluble  in  water, 
water,  sparingly  soluble  in  acids.    Capitals  indicate  common  substances ;  small  figures 


1 

i 

I 

g 

3 

1 

| 

s 

;d 

5 

d 

EH 

'i 

§ 

M 

M 

• 

"QD 

| 

fH 

"d 

1 

i 

3 

00 

1 

.1 

i 

5 

1 

1 

1 

02 

p 

1 

1 

d 

S 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w-a 

w 

w 

W 

w 

W 

W 

W 

w 

W 

Acetate. 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

w 

a 

W 

a 

a 

a 

Arseniate. 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

w 

a 

w 

a 

a 

Arsenite. 

a 

a 

w 

w 

a 

w-a 

w 

w-a 

w 

Benzoate. 

a 

a 

w-a 

a 

a 

W 

a 

W 

a 

a 

a 

Borate. 

w 

w-i 

w 

w 

a-i 

w 

w 

W 

a 

W 

w 

w 

Bromide. 

a 

A 

A 

A 

a 

a 

A 

W 

a 

W 

A 

A 

Carbonate. 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

W 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

Chlorate. 

W3 

W-I 

W 

W 

A-I 

wa, 

W 

W2e 

I 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

Chloride. 

w 

A-I 

w 

w 

a 

w-a 

a 

w 

a 

w 

w-a 

a 

w 

Chromate. 

W 

a 

w 

a 

a 

w-a 

w 

w 

a 

W 

a 

w-a 

Citrate. 

a 

w 

a 

W 

a-i 

W 

i 

w 

w 

a 

Cyanide. 

w 

w-a 

w 

i 

i 

W 

i 

w 

a 

Ferricy'de. 

I 

a 

w 

a 

i 

W 

i 

w 

w 

a-i 

F'rrocy'de. 

w 

a 

a-i 

a 

w-a 

w-a 

w 

w 

w 

a-i 

w 

w 

w-a 

Fluoride. 

w 

w-a 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

Formate. 

A 

a 

A 

a 

a 

w 

W 

w 

a 

a 

a 

Hydsoxide. 

w 

W-A 

w 

w 

A 

A 

w 

W 

i 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

Iodide. 

w 

w-a 

w 

w 

a 

w-a 

w 

w-a 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

Malate. 

W 

W 

w 

w 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

w 

Nitrate. 

a 

a 

a 

w-a 

a 

a 

a 

W 

a 

W 

a 

a 

w 

a 

Oxalate. 

A 

A 

A 

A20 

A 

A 

A 

W 

a 

W 

W 

a 

A&I 

A 

Oxide. 

a 

a 

a0 

a 

a 

a 

a 

w 

a 

W 

a 

a 

a 

a 

Phosphate. 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

W 

W 

a 

a 

Silicate. 

a 

w 

w 

a 

w 

w 

w 

a 

w 

w-a 

a 

w-a 

Succinate. 

W 

A-I 

W 

W 

w-a 

W23 

W 

W17 

W-A 

W 

I 

w 

W 

Sulphate. 

A 

A 

a 

a 

a 

Aai 

A2S 

W 

a37 

W 

w 

a38 

A38 

A2e 

Sulphide. 

W1B 

a 

w-a 

w-a 

w-a 

a 

a 

w 

a 

w 

a 

a 

a 

Tartrate. 

Edited  by  Johnson.    Page  425-6-7.    (1875.) 


362  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


NOTES  TO   TABLE   OF   SOLUBILITY. 

1.  Aluminic  ammonic  sulphate,  W. 
2          "        potassic          "         W. 

3.  Ammonic  arsenic  chloride,  W. 

4.  "  platinic      "         W— I. 

5.  "  sodic  phosphate,  W. 

6.  "  magnesic  "  A. 

7.  "  ferrous  sulphate,  W. 

8.  cupric         "         W. 

9.  "          potassic  tartrate,  W. 

10.  Antimonic  hypochlorite,  A 

11.  Bismuthic  "  A. 

12.  "         basic  nitrate,  A. 

16.  Calcic  sulphantimonate,  W — A. 

17.  Chromic  potassic  sulphate,  W. 

18.  Cobaltic  sulphide.     Easily  soluble  in  HN08 ;  very  slowly  in  HC1. 

19.  Ferric  potassic  tartrate,  W. 

20.  Manganese  dioxide.     Soluble  in  HC1;  insoluble  in  HNO3. 

21.  Mercurius  solubilis  Hahnemanni,  A. 

22.  Mercurammonic  chloride,  A. 

23.  Mercuric  sulphate  basic,  A.  ^ 

24.  Mercuric  sulphide.    Insoluble  in  HC1  and  in  HN03 ;  soluble  in  aqua  regia, 

25.  Nickelic  sulphide.     (See  Cobaltic  Sulphide.) 

26.  Potassic  platinic  chloride,  W — A. 

27.  Argentic  sulphide.     Only  soluble  in  HN03. 

28.  Tin  sulphides.     Soluble  in  hot  HC1 ;  oxidized,  not  dissolved  by  HN03  ; 

sublimed  stannic  sulphide  only  soluble  in  aqua  regia. 

29.  Zincic  sulphide.     Easily  soluble  in  HNO3 ;  with  difficulty  in  HC1. 

30.  Auric  sulphide.     Insoluble  in  HC1  and  in  HN03  ;  soluble  in  aqua  regia. 

31.  Auric  bromide,  chloride,  and  cyanide,  W;  iodide,  a. 

32.  Platinic  sulphide.     Insoluble  in  HC1 ;   slightly  soluble  in  hot  HN03  ; 

soluble  in  aqua  regia. 

33.  Platinic  bromide,  chloride  and  cyanide,  nitrate  oxalate  and  sulphate,  W  ; 

oxide,  a ;  iodide,  i. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  363 


REDUCTION    OF   COMPOUNDS 

FOUND   TO   CONSTITUENTS   SOUGHT   BY   SIMPLE 

MULTIPLICATION    OR   DIVISION. 
(Fresenius  Quantitative  Analysis,  p.  608.     1871  Edition.) 

The  following  table  only  contains  some  of  the  more  fre- 
quently occurring  compounds ;  the  formulae  preceded  by  ! 
give  absolutely  accurate  results. 

FOR   INORGANIC  ANALYSIS. 

Carbonic  Acid. 
!  Carbonate  of  lime  x  0.44  =  carbonic  acid. 

Chlorine 
Chloride  of  silver  x  0.24724  =  chlorine. 

Copper. 
Oxide  of  copper  x  0.79849  =  copper. 

.  Iron. 

*\A*'  J !  Sesquioxide  of  iron  x  0.7  =  2  iron. 

!  Sesquioxide  of  iron  x  0.9  =  2  protoxide  of  iron. 

Lead.  ^ 

Oxide  of  lead  x  0.9283  =  lead. 

Magnesia. 
Pyrophosphate  of  magnesia  x  0.36036  =  2  magnesia. 

Manganese. 

Protosesquioxide   of  manganese   x  0.72052  =  3  manganese. 
"  "  "  X  0.93013  =  3  protoxide  of 

manganese. 
Phosphoric  Acid. 

Pyrophosphate  of  magnesia  x  0.6396  =  phosphoric  acid. 
Phosphate  of  Sesquioxide  of  uranium  (2  Ur203,P05)  x  0.1991 
—  phosphoric  acid. 


364 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


Potassa. 

Chloride  of  potassium  x  0.52445  =  potassium. 
Sulphate  of  potassa       x  0.5408    =  potassa. 
Potassio-bichloride  of  platinum  x  0.3050 T  1 


or 


=  Potassa. 


Potassio-bichloride  of  platinum 

3.278. 
Potassio-bichloride  of  platinum  x  0.19272 

or 
Potassio-bichloride  of  platinum. 

5.188.  J 

Soda. 

Chloride  of  sodium  x  0.5302    =  soda. 
Sulphate  of  soda      x  0.43658  =  soda. 

Sulphur. 
Sulphate  of  baryta  x  0.13734=  sulphur. 

Sulphuric  Acid. 
Sulphate  of  baryta  x  0.34335  =  sulphuric  acid. 

FOR  ORGANIC  ANALYSIS. 

Carbon. 
Carbonic  acid  x  0.2727 

or 
Carbonic  acid 


j  Chloride  of 
(  potassium. 


3.666. 

or 

Carbonic  acid  x  3 
11 

Hydrogen. 
Water  x  0.11111 


>•  =  Carbon. 


or 

Water 
9 


=  Hydrogen. 


Nitrogen. 

Ammonio-bichloride  of  platinum  x  0.06269  =  nitrogen. 
Platinum  x  0.1415  =  nitrogen. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


365 


TABLE 

SHOWING    THE    AMOUNT    OF    CONSTITUENT    SOUGHT    FOR 
ONE     PART    OF    THE     COMPOUND     FOUND. 


ELEMENTS. 

FOUND. 

•          SOUGHT. 

1. 

Aluminium.. 

Alumina, 

Aluminium, 

0.53398 

A12O3. 

A18. 

(Ammonium 

Chloride  of  Ammonium, 

Ammonia, 

0.31804 

NH4C1. 

"NH3. 

j  Ammonio-bichloride    of  ) 
(               Platinum,               f 

Oxide  of  Ammonium. 

0.11644 

NH4Cl,PtCl2. 

NH40. 

j  Ammonio-bichloride    of  ) 
(               Platinum,               j" 

Ammonia, 

0.07614 

NH4Cl,PtCl3. 

NH3. 

Antimony  .  . 

Teroxide  of  Antimony, 

Antimony, 

0.83562 

Tersulphide  of  Antimony, 

Sb.    " 
Antimony, 

0.71765 

SbS3. 

Sb.  . 

Antimonious  Acid, 

Teroxide  of  Antimony, 

0.94805 

SbO4. 

Sb03. 

Arsenic  

Arsenious  Acid, 

Arsenic, 

0.75758 

As08. 

As. 

Arsenic  Acid, 

Arsenic, 

0.65217 

AsO5. 

As. 

Arsenic  Acid, 

Arsenious  Acid, 

0.86087 

As05. 

AsO3. 

Tersulphide  of  Arsenic, 

Arsenious  Acid,  . 

0.80488 

AsS3. 

AsO3. 

Tersulphide  of  Arsenic. 

Arsenic  Acid, 

0.93496 

AsS3. 

As05. 

(  Arseniate    of    Ammonia  ^ 
(           and  Magnesia.           ( 

Arsenic  Acid, 

0.60526 

2MgO,NH4O,As05  +  Aq. 

As05. 

j  Arseniate    of     Ammonia  ) 
I          and  Magnesia.           C 

Arsenious  Acid, 

0.52105 

2MgO,NH40,As05+Aq. 

As03. 

Barium  

Baryta 

Barium 

0  80542 

BaO.  ' 

Ba. 

v/«  Ot/clrfrw 

Sulphate  of  Baryta, 

Baryta, 

0.65665 

BaO,  SO  3  . 

BaO. 

Carbonate  of  Baryta, 

Baryta, 

0.77665 

BaO,  CO  2  . 
Silico-fluoride  of  Barium, 

BaO. 
Baryta, 

0.54839 

BaFl,SiFl2. 

BaO. 

Bismuth  

Teroxide  of  Bismuth, 

Bismuth, 

0.89655 

Bi03. 

Bi. 

Boron 

Boracic  Acid 

Boron 

0  314^0 

B03. 

B. 

v«  OlTbvi/ 

Bromine.  .  .  . 

Bromide  of  Silver, 

Bromine, 

0.42560 

AgBr. 

Br. 

Cadmium.  .  . 

Oxide  of  Cadmium, 

Cadmium, 

0.87500 

CdO. 

Cd. 

366 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


ELEMENTS. 


FOUND. 


SOUGHT. 


Calcium. . 


Carbon... 


Chlorine.  . 


Chromium 


Cobalt 


Lime, 

CaO. 

Sulphate  of  Lime, 


Copper. 


Fluorine. . 

Hydrogen 
Iodine . . . 


Iron 


Lead. 


Carbonate,  of  Lime, 

CaO,  CO  2. 
Carbonic  Acid, 

C02. 
Carbonate  of  Lime, 

CaO,C02. 
Chloride  of  Silver, 

AgCl. 
Chloride  of  Silver, 

AgCl. 
Sesquioxide  of  Chromium, 

Cr803. 
Sesquioxide  of  Chromium, 

Crs03. 

Chromate  of  Lead, 

PbO,CrO8. 

Cobalt, 

Co. 

(  Sulphate  of  Protoxide  of  ) 
\  Cobalt,  \ 

CoO.  SO  3. 

j  Sulphate  of  Cobalt  +  Sul-  \ 

phate  of  Potassa,         } 

2(CoO,S08)  +  (KO.SOB). 

j  Sulphate  of  Cobalt  +  Sul-  ) 

1         phate  of  Potassa,         \ 

2(CoO,S03)  +  3(KO.S03). 

Oxide  of  Copper, 

CuO. 
Subsulphide  of  Copper, 

Cu2S. 
Fluoride  of  Calcium, 

CaFl. 

Fluoride  of  Silicon, 
SiFl2. 
Water, 

HO. 
Iodide  of  Silver, 

Agl. 
Protiodide  of  Palladium, 

Pdl. 
Sesquioxide  of  Iron, 

Fe203. 
Sesquioxide  of  Iron, 

Fe.203. 
Sulphide  of  Iron, 

FeS. 
Oxide  of  Lead, 

PbO. 

Sulphate  of  Lead, 
PbO,S03. 


Calcium, 

Ca. 
Lime, 
CaO. 
Lime, 
CaO. 
Carbon, 

C. 
Carbonic  Acid, 

C02. 
Chlorine, 

Cl. 
Hydrochloric  Acid, 

HC1. 
Chromium, 

Cr2. 
Chromic  Acid, 

2Cr03. 
Chromic  Acid, 

Cr03. 

Protoxide  of  Cobalt, 
CoO. 

Protoxide  of  Cobalt, 

CoO. 
Protoxide  of  Cobalt, 

2CoO. 

Cobalt, 

2Co. 
Copper, 

Cu. 
Copper, 

2Cu. 
Fluorine, 

Fl. 
Fluorine, 

2F1. 
Hydrogen, 

H. 
Iodine, 

I. 
Iodine, 

I. 

Iron, 
2Fe. 

Protoxide  of  Iron, 

2FeO. 

Iron, 

Fe. 

Lead, 

Pb. 

Lead, 

Pb. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


367 


ELEMENTS. 

FOUND. 

SOUGHT. 

1. 

Lead  

Sulphate  of  Lead, 

Oxide  of  Lead 

0.73597 

PbO,S03. 

PbO. 

Sulphide  of  Lead, 

Oxide  of  Lead, 

0.93305 

PbS. 

PbO. 

Lithium  

Carbonate  of  Lithia, 

Lithia, 

0.40541 

LiO,CO2. 

Sulphate  of  Lithia, 

LiO. 
Lithia, 

0.27273 

LiO,S03. 

LiO, 

Basic  Phosphate  of  Lithia, 

Lithia, 

0.38793 

3LiO,P05. 

3LiO. 

Magnesium  . 

Magnesia, 

Magnesium, 

0.60030 

MgO. 

Mg. 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia, 

Magnesia, 

0.33350 

MgO,S03. 

MgO. 

Pyrophosphate  of  Magnesia, 

Magnesia, 

0.36036 

2MgO,PO5. 

2MgO. 

Manganese  . 

Protoxide  of  Manganese, 

Manganese, 

0.77465 

MnO. 

Mn. 

{  Protosesquioxide  of  Man-  ) 

Manganese, 

0.72052 

r                 ganese.                 \ 

MnO  +  MrioO 

3Mn. 

Sesquioxide  of  Manganese, 

Manganese, 

0.69620 

TVTn    O 

2Mn 

lYin  2  vy<>  . 

j  Sulphate  of  Protoxide  of  ) 
(           Manganese,               j 

JJ.LI1. 

j  Protoxide  of  Man-  ) 
(            ganese.            J 

0.47020 

MnO,  SO  3  . 

MnO. 

Sulphide  of  Manganese, 

j  Protoxide  of  Man-  ) 
ganese. 

0.81609 

MnS. 

MnO. 

Sulphide  of  Manganese, 

Manganese, 

0.63218 

MnS. 

Mn. 

Mercury  .  .  . 

Mercury, 

Suboxide  of  Mercury, 

1.04000 

Mercury, 

Hg20. 
Oxide  of  Mercury, 

1.08000 

Hg. 

HgO. 

Subchloride  of  Mercury, 

Mercury, 

0.84940 

Hg2Cl. 

Hg0. 

Sulphide  of  Mercury, 

Mercury, 

0.86207 

HgS. 

Hg. 

Nickel  

Protoxide  of  Nickel 

Nickel, 

0.78667 

NiO. 

Ni. 

Nitrogen.  .  .  . 

(  Ammonio  -  bichloride    of  ) 
Platinum,               f 

Nitrogen, 

0.06071 

NH4Cl,PtCl2. 

N. 

Platinum, 

Nitrogen, 

0.14155 

Pt. 

N. 

Sulphate  of  Baryta. 

Nitric  Acid, 

0.46352 

BaO,80., 

N05. 

Cyanide  of  Silver, 

Cyanogen, 

0.19410 

AgC2N. 

C2N. 

Cyanide  of  Silver, 

AgC2N. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid, 
HC2N. 

0.20156 

Oxygen  

Alumina, 

Oxygen, 

0.46602 

A1303. 

3O. 

368 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


ELEMENTS. 

FOUND. 

SOUGHT. 

1. 

Oxygen  

Teroxide  of  Antimony, 

Oxygen, 

0.16438 

SbO3. 

30. 

Arsenious  Acid, 

Oxygen, 

0.24242 

As03. 

30. 

Arsenic  Acid, 

Oxygen, 

0.34783 

As05. 

50. 

Baryta, 

Oxygen, 

0.10458 

BaO. 

0. 

Teroxide  of  Bismuth, 

Oxygen, 

0.10345 

Bi03. 

30 

Oxide  of  Cadmium, 

Oxygen, 

0.12500 

CdO. 

0. 

Sesquioxide  of  Chromium, 

Oxygen, 

3.31381 

Cr,03. 

30. 

Protoxide  of  Cobalt, 

Oxygen, 

0.21333 

CoO. 

O. 

Oxide  of  Copper, 

Oxygen, 

0.20151 

'    CuO, 

0. 

Protoxide  of  Iron, 

Oxygen, 

0.22222 

FeO. 

0. 

Sesquioxide  of  Iron, 

Oxygen, 

0.30000 

Fe203. 
Oxide  of  Lead, 

3O. 
Oxygen, 

0.07175 

PbO. 

0. 

Lime, 

Oxygen, 

0.28571 

CaO. 

0. 

Magnesia, 

Oxygen, 

0.39970 

MgO. 
Protoxide  of  Manganese, 

0 
Oxygen, 

0.22535 

MnO. 

0. 

j  Protosesquioxide  of  Man-  ) 
ganese,                 f 

Oxygen, 

0.27947 

MuO  +  Mo03. 

40. 

Sesquioxide  of  Manganese, 

Oxygen, 

0.30380 

f 

Mn203. 

30. 

Suboxide  of  Mercury, 

Oxygen, 

0.03846 

HgaO. 

O. 

Oxide  of  Mercury, 

Oxygen, 

0.07407 

HgO. 

0. 

Protoxide  of  Nickel, 

Oxygen, 

0.21333 

NiO. 

0. 

Potassa, 

Oxygen, 

0.16982 

KO. 

0. 

Silicic  Acid, 

Oxygen, 

0.53333 

SiO*.                   ' 

20. 

Oxide  of  Silver, 

Oxygen, 

0.06898 

AgO. 

0. 

Soda, 

Oxygen, 

0.25810 

NaO. 

0. 

Strontia, 

Oxygen, 

0.15459 

SrO. 

0. 

Binoxide  of  Tin, 

Oxygen, 

0.21333 

SnO2. 

20. 

Water, 

Oxygen, 

0.88889 

HO. 

O. 

THE    CHEMIST'S    MANUAL. 


369 


ELEMENTS. 

FOUND. 

SOUGHT. 

1. 

Oxygea  

Oxide  of  Zinc, 

Oxygen, 

0.19740 

ZnO. 

O. 

Phosphorus. 

Phosphoric  Acid, 
P05. 

Phosphorus, 

0.43662 

Pyrophosphate  of  Magnesia, 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

0.63964 

2MgO,P05. 

P05. 

j  Phosphate   of    Sesquiox-  ) 
|             ide  of  Iron, 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

0.47020 

Fe,0,,POw. 

P05. 

Phosphate  of  Silver, 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

0.16949 

3AgO,P05. 

P05. 

(  Phosphate   of    Sesquiox-  ) 
1         ide  of  Uranium,     •    -V 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

0.19910 

2Ur203,P05. 

P05. 

Pyrophosphate  of  Silver, 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

0.23437 

2AgO,P05. 

P05. 

Potassium  .  . 

Potassa, 

Potassium, 

0.83018 

KO: 

K. 

Sulphate  of  Potassa, 

Potassa, 

0.54080 

KO,S03. 

KO. 

Chloride  of  Potassium, 

Potassium, 

0.52445 

KC1. 

K. 

Chloride  of  Potassium, 

Potassa, 

0.63173 

KC1. 

KO. 

j  Potassio-bichloride       of  ) 
(                Platinum,               ) 

Potassa, 

0.19272 

KCl,PtCl2. 

KO. 

(  Potassio-bichloride       of  ) 
Platinum,               \ 

Chloride  of  Potassium, 

0.30507 

KCl,PtCl8. 

KC1. 

Silicon 

Silicic  Acid, 

Silicon, 

0.46G67 

Si02. 

Si. 

Silver  

Chloride  of  Silver, 

Silver, 

0.75276 

AgCl. 

Ag. 

Chloride  of  Silver, 

Oxide  of  Silver, 

0.80854 

AgCl. 

AgO. 

Sodium 

Soda, 

Sodium, 

0.74190 

NaO. 

Na. 

Sulphate  of  Soda, 

Soda, 

0.43658 

NaSO3. 

NaO. 

Chloride  of  Sodium, 

Soda, 

0.53022 

NaCl. 

NaO. 

Chloride  of  Sodium, 

Sodium, 

0.39337 

NaCl. 

Na. 

Carbonate  of  Soda, 

Soda, 

0.58487 

NaO,C02. 

NaO. 

Strontium..  . 

Strontia, 

Strontium, 

0.84541 

SrO. 

Sr. 

Sulphate  of  Strontia, 

Strontia, 

0.56403 

SrO,S03. 

SrO. 

Carbonate  of  Strontia, 

Strontia, 

0.70169 

SrO,C02. 

SrO. 

Sulphur  

Sulphate  of  Baryta, 

Sulphur, 

0.13734 

BaO,S03. 

S. 

370 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


ELEMENTS. 

FOUND. 

SOUGHT. 

l. 

Sulphur  
Tin  

Tersulpliide  of  Arsenic, 
AsS3. 
Sulphate  of  Baryta, 
BaO,S03. 
Binoxide  of  Tin, 

Sulphur, 

s,. 

Sulphuric  Acid, 
SO3. 
Tin, 

0.39024 
0.34335 
0.78667 

Zinc  

Sn02. 
Binoxide  of  Tin, 
SnO,. 
Oxide  of  Zinc, 

Sn. 
Protoxide  of  Tin, 
SnO. 
Zinc, 

0.89333 
0.80260 

ZnO. 
Sulphide  of  Zinc, 
ZnS. 
Sulphide  of  Zinc, 

ZnS. 

Zn. 
Oxide  of  Zinc, 
ZnO. 
Zinc, 
Zn. 

0.83515 
0.67031 

WEIGHT    OF    SWEDISH    FILTER- PAPER    ASH. 

ACID.  ALKALINE. 

No.  1  (3  in.) .0.0003  grms 0.0010  gnns. 

No.  2  (4  in.) 0.0006  grms 0.0020  grms. 

No.  3  (5  in.) 0.0008  grms 0.0030  grms. 


SCHEMES  FOR  THE 


44 


OF  THE  JJOST  FREQUENTLY  OCCURRING  COMPOUNDS. 


SCHEME 

FOR  THE  QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS   OF  AN 
IRON  ORE  OR  SLAG. 

The  ore  is  sampled  and  prepared  as  described  under  ASSAY 
OF  IRON  ORES.  The  ore  may  contain  Na20,  K20,  CaO,  MgO, 
A1203,  Cr203,  Fe,  Mn,  Zn,  Ni,  Co,  Cu,  As,  S03,  P205,  Ti02,  Si02, 
V205,  W03,  C02,  Cl,  Fe,  H20— ORGANIC  MATTER. 

Make  a  qualitative  examination  for  Cr203,  Cu,  As,  and  Ti. 


I.   SPECIAL   DETERMINATIONS. 


A 

B 

C 

In  1  gram  deter- 
mine H20  by  direct 
weight. 
(Fres.  Quant.  An., 
§36.) 

In  1  gram  deter- 
mine CO  3  by  direct 
weight. 
(Fres.,  §  139,  II.  e.) 

For  special  determinations  of 
K00,  Na30,  Cr8O,  FeO,  As,  S, 
S03,  Ti02,  V205,  W03,  Cl,  Fl— 
ORGANIC  MATTER.  (See  Appen- 
dix.) 

II.   MAIN   ANALYSIS, 

Pulverize  five  grams  to  impalpable  powder  and  fuse 
thoroughly  in  platinum  crucible  (Note  2)  with  20  grams 
Na2C03  (increase  to  30  grams  as  the  ore  contains  more  Si02 
and  SILICATES)  and  2  grams  NaN03  (increasing  to  5  grams  as 
the. ore  contains  more  FeO,  SULPHIDES,  or  ORGANIC  MATTER). 

After  cooling,  treat  crucible  and  fused  mass  in  a  small 
beaker  with  boiling  water,  until  the  mass  is  thoroughly  dis- 
integrated (Note  3).  If  the  solution  has  a  decided  green 
color,  digest  with  a  little  alcohol ;  filter  and  wash  with  hot 
water.— (Fres.,  §160,  10,  a,  and  Note  4.) 


374 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


I.   WATER    SOLUTION. 

It  must  be  clear,  but  may  be  colored.  It  may  contain  A1203, 
ZnO,  Si02,  S03,  P205,  Cr03,  As205.  Add  excess  of  HC1;  evap- 
orate to  dryness  (Note  5) ;  moisten  residue  thoroughly  with 
HC1 ;  digest  with  hot  water;  filter,  and  wash  with  hot  water. 


KESIDUE  a. 

FILTRATE  a. 
Dilute  to  500  c.c.,  and  divide  in  three  portions. 

SiOS)  etc., 
to  be  added 
to  and  re- 
fused with 
Residue  b. 

SOLUTION  a1  —  300  c.c. 
(If  the  ore  contains  As, 
see  Note  6.)    Put  into  a 
large  flask   (to  be  after- 
wards com  binedwitli  solu- 
tion d])  after  determining 
O303,  if  present  (Note  7). 

SOLUTION  a2 
100  c.c. 
Add    BaCl2, 
and   determine 
S03  as  BaS04. 
(Fres.,    §  132 
and  Note  8.) 

SOLUTION  a3 
100  c.c. 
Add    to   solu- 
tion d>},  as  a  lit- 
tle Fe  often  en- 
ters   the   water 
solution. 

II.    INSOLUBLE    RESIDUE. 

It  may  contain  CaO,  Mg0.  A1203,  MnO,  ZnO,  NiO,  CoO,  Fe, 
As,  CuO,  P205,  Si02,  Ti02  (atad  Pt  from  crucible).  Dry  the 
residue;  transfer  it  to  a  casserole ;  dry  and  burn  the  filter  and 
add  its  ashes;  moisten  with  H20 ;  treat  with  HC1;  evaporate 
to  dryness,  and  add  HC1  (Note  9).  Warm  and  digest  with  hot 
water,  with  occasional  stirring.  "When  dissolved  to  a  clear 
solution,  filter  and  wash. — (Fres.,  §  140.) 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


375 


RESIDUE  b. 

FILTRATE  b  OR  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  SOLUTION. 

It  may  contain 

Combine  with  Filtrate  c.    Saturate  thoroughly  with  H2S  gas. 

SiO.2,  TiO.j,  and 

other  substances. 
Combine  it  with 
RESIDUE  a.  Wash 

PRECIPITATE 

FILTRATE  d. 

thoroughly   with 
hot  water  ;  ignite 

may  contain 
Cu,  As  Pt, 

Boil  with  KC1O3,  dilute  to  500  c.c.,  and  divide  into 
three  portions. 

and  weigh.     Add 
a  little  HoSOt  + 

and  separated 

S"Rr»il    tiM*-V» 

NH4F1,  and  heat 
gently;  then  ig- 
nite  to  constant 
weight.     Loss  = 
SiO2.    Fuse  now 
with    bisulphate 
of  soda,  about  10 

.     .Dull   wll-Q 

Aqua  JRegia; 
idd      NH.CI; 
evaporate     to 
dryness;  treat 
with  H2O  and 
alcohol;  filter 
and  wash. 

SOLUTION  d1  300  c.c. 

Combine  in  a  large  flask;   add 
(NH4).,CO:)  almost  to  neutralization 
and  acetate  of  sodium  in  excess; 
dilute  very  largely  (Note  11),  and 
boil.    (Fres.,  §  113*  1,  d.) 

SOLUTION  $2. 
100  c.c.   Add 
100  c.c.  from 
RESIDUE  6. 
(When  the 
ore  contains 
TiO2,  see 

SOL. 

d3. 
100 
c.c.  to 
be  re- 
serv'd 
for 

grams,  adding  a 
little  more   near 
the  end.     When 
crucible   is    per- 
fectly   cold,   dis- 
polve  in  a  large 
amount   of  H2O 
400    c.c.  ;     when 
dissolved  to  clear 
liquid,  dilute   to 
500  c.c.,  and  di- 
vide.     Give    100 
c.c.  to  SOLUTION 
d\  and  300  c.c.  to 
SOLUTION  d1. 

(Fres.,  §124, 
b,a.)    The 
precipitate 
contains  Pt 
'rom  crucible, 
AsNaH4Cl, 
Pt014  ;   satu- 
rate    filtrate 
with  H2S  gas  ; 
filter  dry; 
burn  filter, 
and  put  in 
crucible;  add 
cone.  HNO3; 
dry  ignite 

Note  10.)   De- 
termine the 
TiO2  as  in 
Note  10,  then 
the  Fe  volu- 
metrically. 
(Fres.,  §  112, 
2,  and  Note 
18.) 

acci- 
dent. 

PRECIPITATE  e 
may  contain  Fe2 
O.,  andA!2O:)(as 
basic    acetates), 
and  perhaps  P2OS 
and  Ti02. 
Dissolve    in    HC1 
and  divide  in  two 
portions. 

SOL'N    SOLUTION 

e1.           e*. 
1 

FILTRATE  e 
may  contain  Mn, 
Zn,  Co,  Ni,  Ca, 
Mg.  Concentrate 
to  small  bulk  ; 
transfer  to  flask; 
add  NH4C1  + 
(NH4)HO  to  alka- 
line reaction  and 
(NN,)HS  until 
odor  is  decided,  & 
color  yellowish. 
Fill  flask  with 

Add 

Add(NH4) 

water,  and  set 

CuO.a 

cone. 

HO  in  ex- 

aside overnight, 

(Fres.,  §119,1, 
d,  and  §  164  B, 

HN03; 

evap- 

cess, and 
(NH4)2 

(Fres.,  §161  ,'3, 
and  Note  11.) 

3,  andB,8,  b.) 

orate 

CO  3  to 

.  until 
HC1  is 
expell- 
ed, and 
deter- 

prec. Fe2 
03  +  Al, 
O3+P205 
(Ti02). 
Boil  till 

PRECIPITATE  / 
may  contain  Mn,  Zn, 
Co,  and  Ni    (as    sul- 
phides).    Dissolve  on 
the  filter  with  a  very 

FILTRATE  / 
•may  contain 
CaO  and  MgO. 
Acidulate  with 
acetic  acid  ; 

mine 

all  free 

dilute  HC1,  and  wash. 

boil  and  filter. 

bv  * 

NH,  is  ex- 
pelled; 

(Note  17.) 

uy 
(NH  ) 

filter  and 

MoOt. 

wash  thor- 

RESIDUE 

SOLUTION 

PREC. 

FILT. 

Fres., 

oughly, 

g 

g 

h. 

h. 

etc. 

may  con- 

may contain 

Com- 

Precipi- 

b, /), 

(Fres. 

tain  Ni 

Zn  and  Mn. 

bine 

tate 

and 

§  105  and 

and  Co  as 

Boil;  add 

with 

CaO  as 

Note 

§  113  1,  a, 

sul- 

Na2CO3 in 

RESI- 

CaC204 

12.) 

and  Note 
13.) 

phides  ; 
combine 

excess  ; 
filter  and 

DUE  g. 

and 
MgO  as 

From  this 
weight  deduct  P2O,  found  in  e1.  and  Fe,O,  calcu- 
lated from  d*,  and  difference  =  A1,O  ,(  +  Ti62).     If 
TiO2  is  present,  deduct  its  weight,    Calculate  from 
SOLUTION  d.    Remainder  =  AlaO8. 

with  prec. 
h;  trans- 
fer to  cru- 
cible ;  add 
HNOsand 
H2S04  ; 

wash. 
(Fres.,  §108 
and  §  109, 
and  Note  16.) 
Dry  precip- 
itate and 

(Fres,, 
§  104,  2.) 

digest  ; 

ignite  strongly  to  constant 

evapo- 

weight.    Tl 

icn  dis 

solve  in 

rate;  dry; 

HOI;    add 

acetate 

of    so- 

ignite  ; 

clinm  ;    satu 

rate  w 

th  H..S 

and  weigh 

gas  ;  filter  and  wash.    Dis- 

as sul- 

solve ZnS  in  HC1  ; 

precipi- 

phates. 

tate   with   ] 

ST<|     OQ 

;    filter, 

(Note  15.) 

wash,  etc. 

(Fres3. 

.  §  108.) 

Deduct,   this    weight  "from 

the  former, 

and  d 

inference 

=  Mn  as  Mn3O4. 

376  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

NOTES. 

[The  references  to  Fresenius's  Quantitative  Analysis  refer 
to  London  edition  of  1865.] 

NOTE  2.  Preliminary  fusion. — Thoroughly  mix  the  ore 
and  its  fluxes  on  glazed  paper ;  put  about  a  third  of  the  mix- 
ture in  a  two-ounce  platinum  crucible,  and  heat  over  a  Bun- 
sen  burner  until  the  greatest  violence  of  the  effervescence  has 
ceased.  Then  add  and  treat  the  rest  in  the  same  way.  Finally, 
heat  strongly  over  a  blast-lamp  until  mass  is  in  complete  and 
quiet  fusion. 

NOTE  3.  Removal  of  the  fused  mass. — Let  crucible  cool 
until  just  below  red-heat,  and  place  it  on  a  clean  and  dry  iron 
plate,  whose  lower  part  is  immersed  in  cold  water.  When 
crucible  is  cold  enough  to  hold  in  hand,  put  it  in  a  small 
beaker  in  which  it  can  lie  on  its  side,  and  digest  with  boiling 
water.  Heat  over  a  water-bath  until  fused  mass  all  comes  out 
of  crucible,  or  will  come  out  by  inverting  it.  Remove  the 
crucible  ;  wash  it ;  treat  it  in  a  small  beaker  with  a  little  con- 
centrated HC1  to  remove  any  adhering  particles,  and  add  this 
to  that  of  the  INSOLUBLE  RESIDUE  (2). 

NOTE  4.  Reduction  of  H2Mn04. — If  alcohol  is  added,  heat 
over  a  water-bath.  If  there  was  no  bluish-green  tint,  no  alco- 
hol need  be  added. 

NOTE  5.  Reparation  cf  Si02. —  In  order  to  render  Si02 
entirely  insoluble,  the  evaporation  should  be  carried  to  perfect 
dryness,  until  no  odors  of  HC1  can  be  detected,  and  the  mass 
is  hard  and  crumbly.  As  the  residue  is  to  be  re-fused  with 
Residue  £,  the  drying  may  be  conducted  at  a  temperature 
somewhat  higher  than  100°  C. 

NOTE  6.  Removal  of  As. — The  As  has  already  been  mostly 
or  completely  volatilized  in  the  foregoing  evaporation.  If  a 
trace  still  remains,  saturate  with  H2S  gas,  filter,  wash,  add 
a  little  KC103  to  filtrate,  and  boil  until  S  is  completely  oxi- 
dized. 

NOTE  7.   Determination  of  O203. — Add  KHO  in  excess, 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  377 

and  boil  with  sufficient  Br.  Cool,  add  HN03  almost  to  neutrali- 
zation, acidulate  with  acetic  acid,  add  some  sodium  acetate  in 
excess  and  boil.  Filter  out  liot  the  basic  aluminium  acetate 
precipitate,  wash  with  hot  water,  containing  a  little  sodium 
acetate.  To  filtrate,  add  barium  acetate  in  slight  excess,  filter 
and  wash.  This  last  filtrate  and  the  precipitate  of  alumi- 
nium acetate  contain  all  the  P205  and  A1203  in  the  WATER 
SOLUTION.  The  latter  is  to  be  dissolved  in  HC1,  the  former  to 
be  freed  from  the  excess  of  barium  acetate  with  dilute  H2S04, 
and  both  to  be  added  to  SOLUTION  dl.  Digest  the  precipitate 
of  BaO04  and  BaS04  with  concentrated  H2S04,boil,  filter  and 
wash.  Boil  the  filtrate  with  concentrated  HC1  and  alcohol  to 
reduce  OH204  to  O203  and  precipitate  the  latter  with(NH4)20. 
(Fres.,§106,  1,  a.) 

NOTE  8.  Precipitation  of  BaS04. — Add  5  cubic  centimetres 
of  BaCl2  at  first  to  hot  solution  ;  when  precipitate  settles,  add 
a  little  more  to  see  if  there  is  any  H2S04  present.  Filter, 
digest  with  HC1,  wash  with  hot  water. 

NOTE  9.  Separation  of  Si02. — Evaporate  as  in  Note  5. 
Then  add  HC1  pretty  freely  and  warm  for  some  time  before 
adding  any  water,  as  the  high  heat  may  have  produced  anhy- 
drous Fe203,  forming  an  oxychloride  which  is  very  slow  to 
dissolve,  especially  in  dilute  acid.  If  acid  added  be  too  dilute, 
concentrate  by  evaporation,  add  concentrated  HC1,  and  digest 
at  a  moderate  heat. 

NOTE  10.  Determination  of  Ti02.  —  Pass  H2S  gas  into 
SOLUTION  d2  until  it  is  saturated,  boil  for  an  how;  occasion- 
ally adding  H2S  water.  Filter  off  the  precipitate  and  wash. 
Add  a  few  grains  of  KC103  to  the  filtrate  and  boil.  Precipi- 
tate the  iron  with  (NH4)HO.  Dissolve  it  in  H2S04  acid,  warm 
dilute,  etc.,  and  test  volumetricall^for  Fe.  (Note  18.)  The 
precipitate  obtained  by  boiling  with  H2S  was  Ti02  +  S.  Dry, 
ignite,  and  weigh  =  Ti02  in  one  gram  of  ore. 

NOTE  11.  Precipitation  of  the  .Basic  Acetates. — Dilute  the 
solution  to  about  one  litre  for  each  gram  of  the  sesquioxide 
present.  It  is  sufficient  to  boil  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  for 


378  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

the  complete  precipitation  of  the  acetates.  The  filtering  should 
be  done  as  quick  as  possible — through  a  rib-filter.  Wash  the 
precipitate  with  boiling  water,  containing  a  little  sodium 
acetate.  Should  any  basic  acetate  separate  upon  concen- 
trating the  filtrate,  add  some  sodium  acetate^  boil,  filter,  dis- 
solve the  precipitate  in  HC1  and  unite  to  the  solution  of  the 
main  body. 

NOTE  12.  Determination  of  P205. — The  following  method 
may  be  employed  for  the  removal  of  HCl.  Add  (NH4)HO 
suddenly  in  large  excess,  filter,  wash  once,  and  redissolve  in 
boiling  HN03.  The  solution  containing  concentrated  HN03 
in  large  excess,  and  no  more  than  a  trace  of  HCl  must  be 
diluted  to  about  400  cubic  centimetres  and  heated  to  boiling. 
Then  add  solution  of  (H4N)2Mo04  in  large  excess;  with  most 
ores  100  cubic  centimetres  are  sufficient.  Keep  near  the 
boiling  point  several  hours  and  set  aside  over  night  in  a 
warm  place.  Then  decant  on  a  rib-filter,  if  the  supernated 
liquid  is  colorless,  and  transfer  precipitate  to  filter  by  means 
of  small  portions  of  the  filtrate.  Rinse  the  beaker  and  wash 
the  precipitate  once  with  the  diluted  precipitant.  Heat  the 
filtrate  and  washings  to  boiling,  add  a  little  more  of  the  preci- 
pitant and  set  aside  to  determine  if  any  more  P205  will  be 
precipitated.  Dissolve  the  precipitate  back  into  the  original 
beaker  by  pouring  dilute  (NH4)HO  through  the  filter.  [If  a 
red  residue  of  oxide  of  iron  remains  undissolved,  pour  dilute 
HN03  upon  it,  allow  it  to  pass  into  (NH4)HO  solution,  acidu- 
late with  HN03,  boil,  add  more  of  the  precipitant,  and  set  aside 
as  before,  filter  and  wash  several  times  with  the  diluted  pre- 
cipitant, then  dissolve  the  precipitate  on  the  filter  and  adhering 
to  the  beaker  in  as  little  dilute  (NH4)HO  as  possible  into  a 
small  beaker.]  Add  from  one  to  ten  cubic  centimetres  of 
magnesia  mixture  (Fres.,  §  62,  6,)  and  continue  as  in  (Fres., 
§134,  l,b,a.). 

NOTE  13.  Washing  of  Fe203.6H20. — Wash  this  precipitate 
by  boiling  up  with  water  and  decanting  until  the  wash- water 
shows  very  little  alkaline  reaction  with  litmus-paper  and 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  379 

gives  very  little  precipitate  with  solution  of  AgN03.  Then 
transfer  to  filter  and  wash  thoroughly  with  boiling  water. 

NOTE  14.  Precipitation  of  the  Sulphides. — Add  no  more 
of  the  yellow  ammonic  sulphide  than  is  required,  as  an  ex- 
cess will  re-dissolve  a  portion  of  the  precipitate  unless  much 
NH4C1  be  present.  But  an  excess  of  the  latter  reagent  will 
interfere  with  the  concentration  necessary  to  precipitate  the 
MgO  in  filtrate  h.  Cork  the  flask  tightly  before  setting  it 
aside. 

NOTE  15.  Separation  of  CQ  and  Ni. — Should  these  constitu- 
ents be  present  in  considerable  quantity,  which  very  rarely 
happens,  it  is  better,  as  the  nickelous  sulphate  is  likely  to  be 
converted  into  NiO  by  too  strong  ignition,  to  dissolve  the  sul- 
phides in  aqua-regia,  neutralize  with  KHO,  precipitate  and 
determine  the  CoO  by  Genth  and  Gibbs'  process  (Fres.,  §  160, 
12,  and  §  111,  4),  and  in  the  filtrate  determine  the  Ni  as  oxide. 

NOTE  16.  Determination  of  Mn. — (Gibbs'  process.  Am. 
Jour.  Sci.,  xliv,  p.  216.)  To  the  HC1  solution,  free  from 
H2S,  add  (NH4)HO  in  excess  and  solution  of  Na2HP04  in  large 
excess.  Then  add  dilute  H2S04  or  HC1  until  the  white  preci- 
pitate re-dissolves,  heat  to  boiling,  and  add  (NH4)HO  in  excess. 
Digest  near  the  boiling  point  about  an  hour,  when  the  precipi- 
tate, at  first  white  and  gelatinous,  becomes  crystalline  in  rose- 
colored  scales.  Filter  and  wash  with  hot  water.  If  tinged 
red,  re-dissolve  the  precipitate  in  dilute  HC1  and  repeat  the 
process.  On  ignition  the  precipitate  is  converted  into  M  n2  P207, 
a  nearly  white  powder. 

If  Zn  is  present,  it  must  first  be  separated  as  ZnS,  as  in  the 
Scheme. 

NOTE  17.  Precipitation  of  dissolved  NiS. — A  trace  of  NiS, 
which  is  somewhat  soluble  in  ammonic  sulphide,  is  often  car- 
ried through  into  this  filtrate,  but  is  completely  thrown  down, 
along  with  the  excess  of  S,  by  this  acidulation. 

NOTE  18.  Volumetric  determination  of  Fe. — Put  solution 
^2,  after  treating  it  according  to  NOTE  10,  into  a  flask  holding 
200  cubic  centimetres,  cool,  dilute  with  cold  water  exactly  up 


380  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

to  the  mark,  mix  by  pouring  back  and  forth  several  times 
from  the  flask  to  a  beaker,  draw  out  100  cubic  centimetres 
with  a  pipette  known  to  deliver  that  quantity,  empty  it  into 
a  reducing  bottle  of  250  cubic  centimetres  capacity,  and  cover 
over  with  a  ground  plate  of  glass.  Put  in  each  bottle  a  piece 
of  amalgamated  Zn  free  from  iron,  and  a  strip  of  platinum- 
foil  resting  on  it,  add  about  10  cubic  centimetres  of  concen- 
trated H2S04, cover,  and  set  aside  over  night;  when  reduction 
is  complete  the  solution  will  be  colorless.  Then  in  each  of 
two  flasks,  holding  about  75  cubic  centimetres,  introduce 
exactly  two  grams  of  fine  iron  wire,  add  an  excess  of  dilute 
H2S04,  and  immediately  adjust  corks  (having  bent  tubes 
attached,  with  their  ends  immersed  in  small  beakers  of  warm 
water)  and  heat  until  the  complete  solution  of  the  wire.  By 
this  water-valve  arrangement  the  entrance  of  the  air  and  oxida- 
tion of  the  FeCl2  solution  are  avoided,  and  when  the  water 
begins  to  run  back,  after  the  evolution  of  H  has  ceased,  its 
warmth  prevents  the  too  sudden  reduction  of  the  temperature 
and  condensation  of  the  vapors  in  the  flask.  After  cooling, 
pour  and  wash  out  the  contents  of  each  flask  with  the  beaker 
of  water  attached,  into  a  large  beaker,  add  dilute  H2S04  in 
excess,  dilute  to  about  one  litre,  and  titrate  successively  and 
rapidly  with  the  solution  of  K2Mn208,  to  determine  its  strength. 
Now  pour  and  wash  the  contents  of  each  reduction  bottle 
into  a  large  beaker,  add  dilute  H2S04,  dilute  to  about  one  litre 
and  titrate  successively  as  before.  (In  a  HCl  solution  all  pos- 
sible excess  of  that  acid  must  be  avoided,  and  the  solution 
must  be  diluted  to  two  litres.)  Better  evaporate  the  solution 
previous  to  reduction  with  an  excess  of  H2S04  and  drive  off 
HCl. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  381 

APPENDIX. 

SPECIAL    DETERMINATIONS. 

ALKALIES. — Mix  5  grams  of  ore,  very  finely  pulverized, 
with  30  grams  of  CaC03  and  about  3  grams  NH4C1;  calcine 
at  a  bright-red  heat  in  platinum  crucible  for  thirty  to  forty 
minutes;  boil  the  cinter  mass  with  water  for  two  to  three 
hours,  replacing  the  loss  from  evaporation;  filter  and  wash. 
(Fres.,  §  140,  II,  b,  8.)  Separate  all  CaO  by  addition  of  (NH4) 
HO  and  (NH4)2C03  in  excess,  and  then  a  few  drops  of  am- 
monic  oxalate ;  filter  and  wash.  In  the  filtrate  the  alkalies 
occur  as  chlorides,  and -may  be  separated  in  the  usual  way. 
(Fres.,  §  152,  1,  a.) 

CHKOMIUM. — Fuse,  etc.,  as  in  MAIN  ANALYSIS,  obtain  filtrate 
a  of  the  WATER  SOLUTION,  and  determine  the  Cr  as  in  Note  7. 

But  if  the  ore  be  chromic  iron,  either  employ  Hunt's  method 
(Fres.,  §  160, 10  «,  a)  or  that  of  Gibbs  (Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  xxxix, 
p.  59),  as  follows :  Fuse  over  blast-lamp  with  10  to  15  parts 
KF,  HF;  digest  with  H2S04  until  F  is  expelled;  add  hot  H20 
filter,  and  in  the  filtrate  separate  Cr203  from  A1203,  and  de- 
termine it  as  in  Note  7. 

FERROUS  OXIDE. — Digest  one  gram  of  ore,  finely  pulverized, 
in  a  flask  with  concentrated  HC1,  passing  a  current  of  carbonic 
anhydride.  After  complete  decomposition,  cool  in  carbonic 
anhydride,  and  immediately  titrate  the  solution  of  FeCl2,  with- 
out removing  the  insoluble  residue,  with  K2Mn208  (Note  18). 
The  presence  of  organic  matter  and  of  the  higher  oxides  of  Mn 
will  interfere  with  the  accuracy  of  the  process. 

For  a  special  determination  of  the  entire  amount  of  Fe  in 
an  ore,  either  this  method  may  be  employed,  omitting  the  use 
of  carbonic  anhydride,  or  the  ore  may  be  decomposed  by  fusion, 
as  in  the  MAIN  ANALYSIS,  without  the  use  of  Na2N03,  or 
Clarke's  method  may  be  employed  as  follows  (Am.  Jour.  Sci., 
xlv,  178):  Thoroughly  mix  1  gram  of  ore  with  3  grams 
of  NaF  or  pure  powdered  cryolite,  put  in  large  platinum  cru- 
cible, and  cover  with  12  grams  of  coarsely-powdered  KHS04. 


382  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Fuse  about  twenty  minutes ;  Cool;  add  concentrated  H2S04; 
fuse  to  homogeneous  paste ;  cool,  and  dissolve  in  cold  water. 
When  cryolite  is  used,  a  bulky  white  residue  of  CaS04  gener- 
ally remains.  Reduce  the  solution  obtained  by  either  of  these 
methods  and  titrate  in  usual  way. 

ARSENIC. — Fuse  5  grams  of  ore  as  in  MAIN  ANALYSIS  and 
obtain  the  WATER  SOLUTION,  in  which  the  As  will  be  present  as 
sodium  arseniate.  Add  a  little  Na2S04  and  HC1  to  slight  acid 
reaction ;  boil  a  few  minutes  until  all  the  As205  has  been  re- 
duced to  As203  ;  saturate  the  warm  solution  with  H2S  gas ; 
filter,  and  wash  with  H2S  water.  Dry  filter  and  contents,  and 
oxidize  them  in  a  beaker  with  fuming  HN03.  Dilute,  warm 
gently  with  a  little  KC103,  to  oxidize  organic  matter,  and  pro- 
ceed as  in  Fres.,  §  127,  2. 

SULPHURIC  ACID. — Boil  5  grams  ore  with  50  c.c.  HC1  +  50 
c.c.  H20  + 10  c.c.  alcohol.  Filter  and  precipitate  with  BaCl2 
in  the  filtrate.  The  difference  between  the  sulphuric  an- 
hydride thus  found  and  the  total  found  in  the  MAIN  ANALYSIS 
will  give  the  amount  equivalent  to  the  S  actually  existing  in 
the  ore  as  metallic  sulphide. 

TITANIC  ACID. — The  ore  must  be  decomposed  and  the  Ti02 
brought  into  solution  in  cold  water  by  Clarke's  method,  de- 
scribed under  FERROUS  OXIDE.  Then  proceed  as  in  Fres., 
§107  and  §235,  and  Note  10. 

YANADIC  AND  TUNGSTIC  ACIDS. — These  acids,  which  occur  in 
very  small  quantities  in  some  European  ores,  may  be  separated 
and  detected  as  follows:  Treat  Residue  «,  obtained  from  10  to 
20  grams  of  ore,  like  Residue  c  in  the  Scheme,  until  all  Si02  is 
expelled.  Any  residue  which  remains  may  contain  A1203, 
Ti02,  V205,  and  W03.  Ignite  and  weigh,  fuse  it  with  Na2C03, 
dissolve  in  HC1,  boil,  add  NH4HO  in  excess,  and  saturate  with 
H2S  gas.  A  red  color  will  denote  the  presence  of  V205, 
and  a  brown  precipitate  that  of  W03  (Pogg.  Anal.,  21,  47. 
H.  Rose's  Handb.  d.  Anal.  Chem.,  ii,  764). 

CHLORINE. — Proceed  as  in  Fres.,  §  167,  3,  c. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


383 


FLUORINE. — Proceed  as  in  Fres.,  §  166,  5,  a,  or  if  the  ore 
contains  apatite,  as  in  Fres.,  §  166,  6. 

ORGANIC  MATTER. — Roast  1  gram  in  an  open  crucible,  at  a 
red  heat,  and  (when  the  protoxide  of  iron,  the  higher  oxides  of 
manganese,  sulphur,  and  arsenic  are  absent)  the  loss  dimin- 
ished by  the  amounts  of  carbonic  anhydride  and  H20  present, 
will  be  approximately  equivalent  to  the  amount  of  organic 
matter. 

ANALYSIS   OF  A. 


BEOWN  HEMATITE  OB 
LIMONITE. 

HEMATITE  OK  SPECTTLAR 
OKE. 

MAGNETIC  IBON  OKB. 

Ferric  oxide  90  05 

Ferric  oxide  95.16 

Ferric  oxide  .  .         .  62  20 

Ferrous  oxide. 

Ferrous  oxide. 

Ferrous  oxide  17  32 

Manganous  oxide.  .  .0.88 
Alumina  0.14 

Manganous  oxide..  0.24 
Alumina  0  06 

Manganous  oxide.  .  .0.14 
Zinc  oxide 

Lime                           0  06 

Lime                          0  07 

Alumina                     3  81 

Magnesia         0  20 

Magnesia 

Lime                           5  52 

Potash 

Potash. 

Magnesia   .                1  82 

Silica  0.92 

Soda. 

Potash  and  Soda  0  10 

Titanic  acid 

Silica  5  66 

Silica                         .  9  66 

Carbonic  acid. 
Phosphoric  acid  0.09 
Sulphuric  acid)  , 
Iron  pyrites      \ 

Carbonic  acid. 
Phosphoric  acid  ) 
Sulphuric  acid  >-  traces. 
Iron  pyrites        ) 

Carbonic  acid. 
Phosphoric  acid  0.10 
Sulphuric  acid. 
Iron  pyrites  .     .  .     0  17 

WfltPr  \  hygroscopic 
jT)  combined..  9.22 
Organic  matter. 

Percentage  oflron.GSM 

Water     ^yg^opic 
(  combined. 
Organic  substance. 

Percentage  oflronM.lQ 

Water  j  combined.  .  .0.28 
er1hygroscopic.0.34 
Insoluble  in  acid. 

Percentage  ofIron.57M 

In  the  foregoing  analysis,  it  may  be  seen  that  (for  instance) 
the  magnesia  in  the  given  analysis  of  hematite  does  not  exist, 
neither  the  potash  in  the  limonite  or  the  zinc  oxide  in  the 
magnetite ;  but  in  some  ores  these  substances  are  present,  in  an 
appreciable  amount.  The  MAGNETITE  of  this  state  most  always, 
if  not  always,  contains  Ti02. 


384 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


CAST   OR    PIG    IRON   ANALYSIS, 

Total  carbon :  Rogers'  process  (see  J.  Chem.  Soc.,  London, 
May  1869).  To  2.5  grams  borings  or  filings  add  50  c.c.  of  a 
solution  of  CuS04  (1  salt  to  5H20) ;  heat  gently  for  ten  min- 
utes. Fe  dissolves,  and  Cu  separates ;  carbon  remains.  Now 
add  20  c.c.  of  CuCl2  (1  to  2)  +  50  c.c.  strong  HC1,  and  heat  for 
some  time  nearly  to  boiling  until  Cu  dissolves ;  filter  through 
broken  glass  and  asbestos;  wash  thoroughly  with  boiling 
water,  and  finally  wash  with  small  jet  into  flask  (c1),  and  add 
three  grams  Cr03,  and  arrange  apparatus  as  shown  in  the 
FIGURE.  Then  add  30  c.c.  of  strong  H2S04,  little  at  a  time, 
shaking  constantly,  closing  cock  of  funnel  tube  each  time. 
Finally  heat  gently  to  boiling,  not  allowing  more  than  three 
bubbles  of  gas  to  pass  per  second.  Boil  one  minute;  attach 
guard-tube  (a)'  and  aspirator  to  guard  tube  (&)  and  draw  air  (3 
bubbles  per  second).  Increase  weight  of  tube  (/)=C02,  etc. 


APPARATUS  USED. 


Pumice 

and 
HaSO4 


Guard  Tube 


f   Soda  Lime 
to  absorb  COa 

g  =  Pumice  and  HaSO, 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  385 

GRAPHITE    AND    SILICON. 

Eggertz  process.  (Chem.  News,  Am.  Reprint,  vol.  iv, 
p.  25.)  Add  5  grams  of  fine  borings  to  10  cubic  centimetres 
of  H2S04  +  50  cubic  centimetres  H20  ;  boil  one-half  hour, 
evaporate  one-third  and  cool.  Add  10  cubic  centimetres 
HN03,  boil  one-quarter  hour,  evaporate  on  water-bath  until  no 
vapors  pass  off,  to  dry  or  nearly  dryness,  add  75  cubic  centi- 
metres H20  -f-  13  cubic  centimetres  HCl  and  boil  one-quarter 
hour.  Add  more  HCl  if  anything  remains  undissolved. 
(Filter  through  a  filter  washed  with  acid,  dried  and  weighed.) 
Wash  first  with  cold  water  until  no  more  iron  appears  in  wash- 
ings, then  writh  boiling  water  -f  5  per  cent  HN03.  Dry  at 
100°  C.  and  weigh.  Ignite  strongly  and  weigh  again.  Loss 
=  GRAPHITE.  Expel  Si02  with  NH4F.  Loss  =  Si02. 

NOTE.— Si02  dried  at  100°  C.  contains  6  per  cent  H20, 
which  goes  off  on  ignition,  and  must  be  deducted  from 
GRAPHITE  after  Si02  is  determined. 

SULPHUR. 

By  Eggertz  process.  (Chem.  News,  Am.  Reprint,  vol.  iii, 
p.  1.)  Dissolve  10  grams  KC103  in  200  cubic  centimeters  H20 
and  add  5  grams  of  borings ;  boil  and  add  60  cubic  centimetres 
HCl  (little  by  little),  boil  until  Fe  dissolves.  Evaporate,  dry 
on  bath  to  ensure  oxidation  of  sulphur.  Thorough  dryness 
not  necessary,  as  Si02  does  not  interfere  in  acid  solutions. 
Now  add  10  cubic  centimetres  HCl  -f-  30  cubic  centimetres 
H20  and  leave  on  bath  until  all  Fe2Cl6  is  dissolved.  Then 
add  20  cubic  centimetres  H20  and  wash  thoroughly.  Add  2- 
cubic  centimetres  saturated  solution  of  BaCl2  (enough  for 
H2S04  from  0.100  S) ;  after  cooling,  add  5  cubic  centimetres 
(NH4)HO,  stir  and  leave  for  twenty-four  hours.  Filter  and 
wash  by  decantation  with  cold  water,  two  or  three  times,  and 
then  with  hot  water.  If  precipitate  shows  iron  after  ignition, 
treat  with  HCl,  etc. 


386  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


PHOSPHORUS. 

Dissolve  as  in  sulphur  determination.  Dry  at  140°  C., 
some  anhydrous  Fe203  will  be  left  with  Si02.  Fuse  with  a 
little  K2S207  (bisulphate  of  potash),  soften  with  H2S04,  and 
dissolve  in  water.  Filter  out  Si02  and  determine  it  as  a  check 
on  regular  determination.  Add  filtrate  to  main  one,  dilute 
largely  and  precipitate  sesquioxides  +  P205  by  large  excess  of 
(NH4)HO  cold,  wash  by  decantation  two  or  three  times  with 
cold  water,  and  then  on  a  large  filter.  Dissolve  on  the  filter 
with' hot  dilute  HN03.  Boil  out  any  Cl  remaining  in  the 
solution,  and  precipitate  P205,  as  in  Note  12  of  Iron  Ore 
Scheme. 

IRON. 

Dissolve  0.200  grams  in  H2S04,  reduce  with  Zn  and  Pt,  and 
titrate  with  KMn04;  when  oxidation  is  nearly  complete,  use 
solution  one-tenth  strength.  Note  18,  Iron  Ore  Scheme. 


BASES   OF  GROUPS   II,    III   AND    IV. 

Dissolve  10  or  20  grams  in  HC1.  Extract  Si02,  and  proceed 
as  in  Iron  Ore  Analysis.  It  is  better  to  determine  aluminum 
separately. 

ANALYSIS  OF   FOREIGN    MALLEABLE    IRON. 


-SWEDISH.- 


Iron 99.863 99.220  —  98.78 

Carbon 0.054 0.087—    0.84 

Silicon 0.028 0.056  —   0.12 

Sulphur* 0.055 0.632—    .... 

Phosphorus Trace 0.005—    .... 

Manganese Trace —   O.G5 

Copper —   0.07 

Arsenic Trace  —    0.02 

Total,      100.00  100.00       99.8S 


Sulphur  determinations  are  prohab'y  too  high. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


387 


ANALYSIS  OF   CAST   IRON. 


Ore  used< 
Fuel  used  | 
Analyst  -J 

Spa- 
thic. 
Char- 
coal. 
Fre- 
senius. 

Mag- 
netic. 
Char- 
coal. 

Henry. 

Clay  Iron  Ore  of  Coal  Measure. 
Coke. 
Woolwich  Arsenal. 

Iron  

^    ^      j  Combined.. 
Carbon1  Graphite... 
Silicon  

82.860 
4.323 

0979 
0.014 
0.059 
10.707 
0.066 
0.077 
0.091 
0.045 

92.906 
4.809 

0.176 
Trace. 
0.122 
1.987 

100.00 

Cold  Blast. 

No.  3 
Pig. 

No.  1 

Pig. 

Forge 
Pig. 

Sulphur  

Phosphorus.         

Manganese  
Copper  
Aluminum 

Iron      

92.91 
0.04 
310 
2.16 
0.11 
0.63 
0.50 
0.05 

94.69 

3.40 
1.36 
0.07 
0.29 
0.28 

94.83 
j     2.37 

1.09 
0.73 
0.76 
0.22 

Calcium  

na,^/™  J  Combined  . 
Carbon]  Graphitic.. 
Silicon 

Magnesium  
Total  

99.245 

Sulphur   

Phosphorus  

Manganese  
Nickel  and  Cobalt... 

Total  

99.50 

100.09 

100.00 

ANALYSIS   OF   SLAG    FROM    BLAST    FURNACE. 


Works, 
Ore  used, 
Fuel  used, 


Dowlais.  Dudley. 

Clay  Iron  Ore  of  Coal  Measure. 

Coke. 


Kind  of  Iron, 

White 
Forge  Pig. 

Gray  Pig. 

Hot  Blast. 

Analyst, 

Riley. 

Forbes. 

Percy. 

Ferrous  ox 
Manganous 

de      .  . 

6.91 
1.67 
15.51 
23.81 
4.38 
1.98 
44.88 
0.43 
0.59 
0.47 

0.76 
1.62 
15.13 
32.82 
7.44 
1.92 
38.48 
0.15 
1.23    I 
0.99    f 

0.93 
2.79 
13.01 
31.43 
7.27 
2.60 
37.91 

3.65 

1.27 
0.40 
14.11 
35.70 
7.61 
1.85 
38.05 

0.82 

oxide                  

Lime 

Magnesia 

Potash 

Silica    .  . 

Phosphoric 
Calcium 

acid 

Sulphur 

Total 

100.63 

100.54 

99.59 

99.81 

Percent 

age  Iron  

5.37 

0.60 

0.62 

0.99 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

CHROMIC    IRON   ANALYSIS. 

T.  S.  HUNT  and  (F.  A.  GENTH.    Zeitschrift  f.  Anal.  Chem.,  i.,  498.) 

Take  0.5  gram  of  the  impalpable  powder,  and  fuse  in  a 
capacious  platinum  crucible  with  6  grains  potassic  hydrosul- 
phate  for  fifteen  minutes,  at  a  temperature  scarcely  above  the 
fusing  of  the  latter ;  then  raise  the  heat  somewhat,  so  that  the 
bottom  of  the  crucible  may  just  appear  red,  and  keep  it  so 
for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  The  fusing  mass  should  not 
rise  higher  than  half-way  up  the  crucible.  The  mass  begins 
to  fuse  quietly,  and  abundant  fumes  of  sulphuric  acid  escape. 
At  the  expiration  of  twenty  minutes  the  heat  is  increased  as 
much  as  necessary  to  drive  out  the  second  equivalent  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  even  to  decompose  partially  the  iron  and 
chromic  sulphate.  To  the  fused  mass  now  add  3  grams  pure 
sodic  carbonate ;  heat  to  fusion,  and  add  a  small  portion  from 
time  to  time  during  an  hour  of  3  grams  nitre,  maintaining  a 
gentle  red  heat  all  the  while  ;  then  heat  for  fifteen  minutes  to 
bright  redness.  Treat  the  cold  mass  with  boiling  water ;  filter 
hot ;  wash  the  residue  with  hot  w^ater ;  then  digest  in  the  heat 
with  hydrochloric  acid.  If  anything  remains  undissolved,  it 
is  a  portion  of  the  ore  undecomposed,  and  must  be  subjected 
again  to  the  above  operation. 

To  weigh  such  a  residue  and  deduct  it  from  the  ore  first 
taken,  is  not  good,  as  it  never  possesses  the  composition  of  the 
original  substance.  The  alkaline  solution,  which  often  con- 
tains, besides  the  chromic  acid,  also  some  silicic,  titanic,  and 
manganic  acids  and  alumina,  is  evaporated  with  excess  of  am- 
monic  nitrate  on  a  water-bath  nearly  to  dryness,  and  till  all 
free  ammonia  is  expelled.  On  addition  of  water,  the  silicic 
acid,  alumina,  titanic  acid,  and  manganic  oxide,  remain  undis- 
solved, while  the  chromic  acid  passes  into  solution.  Filter 
and  thoroughly  wash  residue.  To  filtrate,  add  HCl  and  al- 
cohol, when  the  chromic  acid  is  converted  into  chromic  oxide 
(sesquioxide  of  chromium)  by  heating  the  solution  for  some 
time. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


389 


All  the  alcohol  must  be  expelled  by  heat.  Then  to  the  solu. 
tion,  which  must  not  be  concentrated,  heated  to  100°  in  a  beaker, 
is  added  ammonic  hydrate  in  slight  excess,  and  the  mixture 
exposed  to  a  temperature  approaching  boiling-point,  until  the 
fluid  over  the  precipitate  is  perfectly  colorless,  presenting  no 
longer  the  last  shade  of  red ;  let  the  solid  particles  subside ; 
wash  three  times  by  decantation,  and  lastly  on  a  filter,  with 
hot  water,  dry  thoroughly  and  ignite  and  weigh  as  Cr203 
(chromium  sesquioxide).  This  method  is  very  accurate. 


ANALYSIS   OF   CHROMIC    IRON. 


CHESTER  Co.,  PA. 
FeO 

35  14 

1 

FeO  

ALTIMORE. 

;.  30.04 

Mo-0 

MgO.    .  .   ;.. 

Cr  O 

51  56 

Cr«Oo 

63.37 

Al  0 

9  72 

Alo00 

1.95 

SiO 

0  gf) 

CaO    .    ..    ... 

2.02 

Total 

QQ  QO 

Si02  . 

2.21 

Total,        99.59 

390 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


SCHEME  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  PIG  LEAD. 

(See  FRES.,  Zeit.  Ann.  Ch.) 

Determine  the  SILVER  by  cupellation,  or  wet  way,  in  200 
grams.  For  other  metals  present  in  the  lead,  dissolve  200 
grams  in  1.5  litres  of  water  +  550  c.c.  strong  nitric  acid,  using 
a  large  flask  and  filtering,  should  the  solution  be  turbid. 


RESIDUE  a. 

Sb2O3  —  SnO2  may  be  left.  Tf  so, 
dissolve  it  in  HC1,  pass  in  H,S  gas, 
filter  and  reserve  the  prec.  to  go  with 
PBEC.  r.  (.Note  1.) 


SOLUTION  a. 

Add  65  c.c.  of  pure  H2SO4,  shake  and  r.llow  to 
stand  till  settled.    Then  filter  and  wash  thoroughly. 


PRECIPITATE  b. 

Equal  PbSO4. 
Reject. 


PRECIPITATE  c 

=  PbSO4  and  perhaps  Sb.  Dissolve 
in  HC1,  add  10  volumes  H2S  water, 
pass  H2S  gas  in,  and  filter,  etc. 


SOLUTION  d. 
Reject  it. 


PRECIPITATE  d 

=  Sb2S3  +  PbS,  add 
it  to  PRECIPITATE  /. 
(Note  2.) 


SOLUTION  b. 

Evaporate  until  fumes  of  sul- 
phuric acid  appear ;  cool,  and  add 
60  c.  c.  of  water ;  filter  and  wash 
with  hot  water. 

SOLUTION  c. 

Dilute  to  200  c.c. ,  heat  to  70°  C.,  pass  H2S  gas  in, 
allow  to  stand  12  hours,  filter,  etc. 


12  hours  for  precipitate  to  settle ;  filter,  etc. 


SOLUTION  /. 

Evaporate  to 
500  c.  c.,   add 

(NH4HO  + 
(NH4)HS,  fill 
flask   and  al- 
low it  to  stand 


PRECIPITATE  g 
=  FeS,    ZnS,    CoS,  NiS. 


Treat  on  the  filter  with  a 

mixture  of  6  parts  H2S 

water  +  1  part  dilute  HC1, 

pouring  back   several  JPRECITATE  k 

times  so  as  to  avoid  bulk ; 

filter,  etc. 


SOLUTION  g. 

Acidulate  with  HC  2H  „  O  a 
and  boil  to  recover  NiS ; 
filter,  etc. 


RESIDUE  h 

=CoS,  NiS. 
Dry,  ignite 
to  oxides  r, 
test  with 


the 
pipe 


blow- 


SOLUTION  h 

=  FeS,  ZnS. 
Add  HNO3, 
boil ;  then 
add(NH4)HO 
in  excess ; 
filter,  etc. 

SOLUTION  i. 

Add 

(NH4)HO  + 
(NHJHS  in 
a  flask  and 
allow  to  stand  for  twenty- 
four  hours ;  filter,  etc. 

SOL.  j.   I  PRECIPITATE,; 

=  ZnS.  Dis- 
I  solve  in  HC1 

and  boil  with 
NaaCO,  in  excess  ;  filter, 
etc.,  ignite  and  weigh  as 
ZnO. 


PREC.  i. 
=  Fe203. 


RESIDUE  I 

=  Bi,S,.  CuS, 

CdS/Pbs. 
Spread  the  fil- 
ter in  a  dish, 
and  treat  nearly 
to  boiling  with 
HNO3 ;  when 
dissolved,  fil- 
ter, wash,  dry 
and  burn  filter; 
throw  the  ash 
into  the  HNO3 
solution.  Then 
add  2  c.c.  H2SO4  and  evaporate  till  white 
fumes  appear ;  add  H2O  and  allow  to  set- 
tle ;  filter,  etc. 


PRECIPITATE  m. 
PbSO4 ;  reject. 


=NiS,addto 
PREC.  g. 


FILTRATE  k. 
Reject. 


PRECIPITATE  / 

=  Sb.2S3,  As2S3,  SnS2,  Bi,S3,  CuS, 
CdS,  PbS,  etc.  Add  PREC.  d.  Treat 
with  K2S,  filter,  etc.  (Note.) 


SOLUTION  m. 

Neutralize  nearly  with 
pureKHO;  addNa2CO3 
and  a  little  KCy  (free 


from  K2S);  filter,  etc.    (N.B.  Note  4.) 


PRECIPITATE  n 

=  Bi203. 

Dissolve  in  dilute 
HNO3  and  prec. 
with  (NH4)2CO3 
as  above. 


SOLUTION  n. 

Add  a  little  more 
KCy  and  then  a  few 
drops  K2S  ;  filter  and 
wash.  Have  SOL.  o 
and  PREC.  o. 


SOLUTION  I 

=  AsoS3,  Sb2S3, 
SnS2  in  K,S  solu- 
tion.   Add  HC1  and 
filter. 


PREC.  r. 


SOL.  r. 
Reject. 


Sb.,S3, 

As2A3, 

SnS2. 

Add  precip.  from 
RESIDUE  a  •  dry, 
treat  with  Cfc?.,,  and 
dry  again.  Evapo- 
rate after  adding 
fuming  HNO;,,  until 
paper  is  destroyed 
and  most  of  the  acid 
gone.  Then  dilute 
a  little  and  add 
Na2CO3  to  alkaline 
reaction,  and  then 
NaNO3  and  evapo- 
rate to  dryness,  and 
heat  carefully  to  fu- 
sion. After  cool- 
insr.  extract  the  cake 
with  water,  etc. 

(Spe  Fres.,  q.  a., 
p.  427.) 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


391 


SOL.  s. 

As,  Sb,  Sn. 
Evaporate 
off  alcohol, 
add  dilute 

H2S04, 

evaporate 

until  no 

fumes  of 

HN03  are 

perceptible 

and  pass 

H2O  gas  in 

at  70°  C. 

and  filter, 

wash ,    etc. 

Dissolve  in 

K2S  and  add  large  excess  solution  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  digest  for  some  time  in  a  water- 
bath,  and  then  boil  until  two-thirds  of  water  and  all  SO3  is  gone,  filter,  etc. 


SOLUTION  o. 

PBECIPITATE  o 

RESIDUE  *. 

Add  a  little  HNO3  +  H2SO4 
+  HC1,  and  evaporate  until  no 

=  AgaS,  CdS.    Wash  with  dilute 
HNO3.    (Note3.) 

NaSb03. 
Dissolve 

odor   of  KCy   is   perceptible. 

in  HC1  + 

Filter  if  necessary.   Precipitate 

RESIDUE  x 

SOLUTION  x 

the  Cu  with  HaS. 

=  Ag2S.      Re- 

= CdS.    Evap- 

and pass 

1-.     TT    u 

jected  as  Ag,  is 
determined  sep- 
arately. 

orate  nearly  to 
dryness      and 
add     Na2CO3. 
If  no  precipi- 
tate    appears, 
rash  ;  filter  with 

in    r!2o   — 

Sb2S3  +  S, 
oxidize 
withHN03 
and  weigh 
as  SbOa. 
Add  result 
from  RESI- 

add KHO,  and  if  one  then  appears,  filter  and  v 
NHtN03  and  burn  =  CdO. 

DUE  t. 

RESIDUE  t. 

Sb2S3  +  SnSo.  The  Sb2S3  here  will  only 
be  a  trace.  Oxidize  in  a  crucible  with  HNOS 
and  weigh ;  then  ignite  in  hydrogen  to  expel 
the  8bO,,  and  oxidize  again  with  HNO3  and 
weigh  the  SnOa.  The  loss,  SbO2. 


SOLUTION  t. 

A8oS3.  Pass  in  H2S  gas,  filter  and  wash, 
oxidize  with  fuming  HNO3,  dilute  a  little, 
warm  gently  with  KC1O3  and  precipitate  as 
ammonio-magnesic  arseniate.  The  washing 
must  be  with  NaCl,  and  the  latter  displaced 
by  (NH4)CaH2Oa,  the  latter  washings  being 
rejected. 


NOTE  x. — In  case  no  CdS  be  present,  Bi  and  Cu  may  be 
separated  by  (NH4)HO  and  (NH4)2C03. 

NOTE  1. — There  will  not  (probably)  be  any  Sn  in  the  lead. 
Should  there  be  any  it  must  be  looked  for  in  FILTRATE  s. 

NOTE  2. — If  precipitate  d  contained  much  Pb,  better  treat 
separately  to  the  point  of  oxidizing  with  HN03,  and  then  add 
to  PRECIPITATE  r. 

NOTE  3. — Better  dissolve  thoroughly  PRECIPITATE  r.  The 
Cd  with  (NH4)2C03,  which  will  not  dissolve  the  same. 

NOTE  4. — If  the  KCy  contains  K2S,  the  precipitated  car- 
bonate may  contain  sulphides.  Filter,  wash,  and  dissolve  in 
boiling  HN03.  Filter  out  any  separated  sulphur.  Again  pre- 
cipitate with  (NH4)2C03  in  slight  excess  and  boil. 

Ag  will  not  be  precipitated.  Cd  may  be.  Filter  and  wash 
with  water  and  then  with  a  little  KCy.  The  CdC03  is  so 
readily  soluble  in  KCy  that  it  will  be  carried  through  the  filter 
into  the  solution. 


392  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


ANALYSIS   OF   PIG    LEAD. 

Harz.  Havre. 

Copper 0.00476 0.0022 

Antimony 0.00317 0.0052 

Iron 0.00163 0.0007 

Zinc 0.00265 

Silver 0.00060 0.0006 

Lead..                                     .    99.98716  ..                          .  99.9913 


Total 100.00000 100.0000 

SCHEME  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  A  NICKEL  ORE. 

Fuse  2  grams  of  finely-powdered  niccolite  (niccolite  arsenide 
4-  cobalt  4-  iron)  with  2  parts  of  potassic  nitrate  and  2  parts 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  in  a  platinum  crucible,  the  bottom  and 
sides  of  which  have  been  previously  lined  with  Na2C03  ;  the 
mass  is  then  ignited  for  some  time,  and  when  cold,  digested 
in  water ;  the  oxides  formed  are  filtered  off  and  thoroughly 
washed.  The  solution  contains  all  the  arsenic  in  the  form  of 
arsenates  of  the  alkalies ;  it  is  supersaturated  with  HC1,  then 
mixed  with  (NH4)HO  and  MgS04.  Let  the  precipitate  stand 
for  twenty-four  hours,  then  filter  through  a  weighed  filter 
washed  with  dilute  (NH4)HO?  dried  at  100°  and  weighed. 

The  oxides  are  dissolved  in  concentrated  HCl,  and  the  cop- 
per and  bismuth,  precipitated,  by  H2S.  The  filtrate  from  H2S 
treatment  is  heated  to  boiling,  and  mixed  with  some  KC103  in 
order  to  peroxidize  the  iron,  which  may  then  be  separated  from 
the  nickel  and  cobalt  in  the  same  manner  as  from  manga- 
nese, by  baric  carbonate.  From  the  liquid  separated  from 
the  baric  carbonate,  the  dissolved  baryta  is  precipitated  by 
H2S04,  and  filtered.  The  filtrate  contains  the  nickel  and 
cobalt,  which  are  precipitated  from  a  hot  solution  by  potassic 
hydrate. 

The  precipitate  containing  the  hydrated  oxides  of  Ni  and  Co 
is  gradually  mixed  with  potassic  cyanide  (free  from  cyanate), 
and  a  gentle  heat  applied  until  dissolved.  By  this  process 
the  cobaltous  and  potassic  cyanide,  KCy,CoCy2,  in  the  solution 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  393 

is  converted  into  potassio-cobaltic  cyanide  (K6Col2Cy2),  whilst 
the  nickelous-potassic  cyanide  remains  unaltered.  Add  to  the 
solution,  while  hot,  levigated  mercuric  oxide.  By  this  method 
the  nickelous-potassic  cyanide  is  decomposed,  and  all  the  nickel 
precipitated,  partly  as  oxide  and  partly  as  cyanide.  Filter  and 
wash ;  ignite ;  with  excess  of  air,  leaves  pure  oxide  of  nickel 
behind,  which  weigh.  Neutralize  the  filtrate  with  HN03  and 
solution  of  mercurous  nitrate,  as  neutral  as  possible,  added 
as  long  as  it  produces  a  precipitate  of  mercurous-cobaltous 
cyanide.  After  being  filtered  (through  a  weighed  filter), 
washed,  and  dried,  it  is  ignited  with  excess  of  air,  when  it  is 
converted  into  cobaltic  oxide,  wrhich,  after  weighing,  must  be 
reduced  by  hydrogen  to  metallic  cobalt. 

ANALYSIS  OF   NICCOLITE. 


As. 

Ni 

54.05  
43.50  

.  .  .  .     54.89  .  .  .  . 
43.21   .  .  . 

52.71 
45  37 

Fe. 
Pb 

0.45  

,  .  .  .       0.54  .  .  .  . 

Co 

032 

Sb 

005 

S.  . 
Gii 

2.18  
igue  0  20  .  . 

,  .  .  .       1.35  .... 

0.48 
.     Cu      144 

Total  100  75 

9999 

100  03 

Analysis  by.  .  .  EBELMEN. 

GBUNOW. 

SCIINABEL. 

SCHEME  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  A  COPPER  ORE. 

Weigh  out  2  grams  of  the  powdered  ore  (impalpable  powder), 
and  put  into  a  beaker.  Add  concentrated  H2S04+HN03. 
Cover  with  convex  cover;  heat  gently  until  effervescence 
ceases;  remove  the  cover,  and  expel  all  the  HN03  over  a 
water-bath  by  evaporation,  until  fumes  of  H2S04  are  given  off. 

Wash  down  the  sides  of  the  beaker  with  hot  water,  then 
filter  into  a  weighed  platinum  dish;  after  diluting  with  water, 
throw  in  a  piece  of  zinc  (soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  without 
residue),  and  add,  if  necessary,  a  little  more  acid.  Cover  the 
dish  with  a  watch-glass,  which  is  afterwards  rinsed  into  the 


394  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

dish.     The  separation  of  the  copper  commences  immediately. 
Heat,  if  necessary. 

After  an  hour  or  two  test  a  portion  of  the  snpernated  liquid 
with  H2S  water;  if  no  brown  tint  is  imparted,  the  copper  is 
all  precipitated.  Press  the  copper  together  with  a  glass  rod, 
decant  the  clear  fluid;  wash;  precipitate  with  boiling  H20, 
and  decant  again;  rinse  the  dish  with  strong  alcohol;  heat 
over  water-bath ;  when  Cu  is  dry,  let  it  cool,  and  weigh.  The 
precipitation  may  be  done  in  a  porcelain  or  glass  dish,  but  it 
will  take  longer. 

ANALYSIS  OF   COPPER    PYRITES. 

S 35.87     36.10 33.88 

Cu 34.40  3285 3265 

Fe 30.47 29.93  32.77 

Quartz 0.27  —  0.32 

Mn —     —  Trace. 

Pb...  —  0.35  .                          — 


Total 101.01  99.23  99.62 

Analysis  by       ROSE.  SMITH.  FOBBES. 

SCHEME  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  A  ZINC  ORE. 

The  ore  may  contain  Zn,  Fe,  A1203,  CaO,  MgO,  PbO,  Si02, 
S,  H20,  C02. 

Dissolve  2  grams  of  pulverized  ore  in  a  mixture  of  5  c.c.  of 
HN03  +  5  c.c.  of  HC1  at  a  gentle  heat,  then  add  5  c.c.  of  N2S04 
and  evaporate  until  fumes  of  sulphuric  acid  are  given  off;  then 
add  boiling  H20  and  filter. 


PRECIPITATE. 

Si02+PbSO4.  Weigh;  then  boil 
with  ammonic  citrate  and  filter.  Res- 
idue will  be  SiO8.  The  filtrate  will 
be  Pb  in  solution ;  add  H3S  and  the 
precipitate  will  be  PbS ;  put  in  cru- 
cible, add  HNO3  +H2S04,  and  ignite, 
which  will  give  PbSO4,  which  weigh. 

The  filtrate  will  contain  in  solution  Zn,  CaO,  MgO.     Add 
H2S  water;  then  pass  in  the  solution  H2S  gas  until  Zn  is  all 


FILTRATE. 

Fe2O8,  A12O8,  ZnO,  CaO,  MgO,  in 
solution ;  neutralize  with  Na2Co3  ; 
add  sodic  acetate  and  boil.  Precipi- 
and  A12O3;  filter 
off. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  395 

precipitated  as  ZnS.  Filter  and  wash  with  H2S  water.  Dis- 
solve ZnS  in  HCl  on  filter;  then  wash  into  beaker  with  boiling 
H20 ;  add  a  few  crystals  of  KC103  and  boil;  filter  off  the  sul- 
phur which  may  separate ;  then  add  Na2C03,  and  the  Zn  will 
be  precipitated  as  ZnC03 ;  filter  and  wash ;  ignite  in  a  porce- 
lain crucible  and  weigh  as  ZnO,  from  which  the  Zn  may  be 
calculated.  The  solution  filtered  from  ZnS  will  contain  CaO 
and  MgO.  Precipitate  CaO  as  oxalate,  and  MgO  as  MgNH4P04. 
Make  special  determinations  for  S,  H20  and  C02. 

The  above  analysis  is  principally  for  the  determination  of  Zn. 


ANALYSIS   OF  ZINC    BLENDE. 


s 

32.10 

33.82  

Zn  
Fe  ..    . 

64.22 
1.32 

64.39  

Cd  

Trace. 

0.98  

Cu 

0.32 

Pb*.  .  .  . 
Mn 

0.72 

0.78  

080 

2 

33.82 
54.17 
11.19 

0.82 


0.88 


Total  ........     99.10  ...........  100.29  ..........  100.88 

Analysis  by  KERSTEN.  SMITH.  SCHEEREB. 

ANALYSIS    OF    PYROLUSITE 

FOR  ITS  COMMERCIAL  VALUE. 

The  following  analysis  is  founded  on  the  fact  that  when 
oxalic  acid  comes  in  contact  with  manganese  in  presence  of 
water  and  sulphuric  acid,  manganous  sulphate  is  formed,  and 
carbonic  acid  is  evolved. 


Each  equivalent  of  available  oxygen,  or,  what  amounts  to 
the  same,  each  1  eq.  manganese  dioxide  =  43.5,  gives  2  eq. 
carbonic  acid  =  44. 

As  44  parts  by  weight  of  C02  correspond  to  43.5  of  manga- 
nese dioxide,  the  C02  found  need  simply  be  multiplied  by 
43.5  and  the  r>roduct  divided  by  44,  or  the  COo  may  be  multi- 

*  Sb  and  Pb. 


396 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


43  5 
plied  by  -^-  =  0.9887  to  find  the  corresponding  amount  of 

manganese  dioxide. 

Take  (0.9887)  x  2  or  3  grains  of  ore,  which  is  finely  pulver- 
ized, and  introduce  into  a  weighed  flask  A  (capable  of  holding 
120  c.c.  up  to  the  neck)  ;  now  add  5-6  grams  of  sodic  oxalate 
or  7.5  grams  potassic  oxalate,  in  powder,  and  enough  water  to 
fill  the  flask  two-thirds  full.  Insert  the  cork  into  A  and  see 
that  it  does  not  leak. 


A  =  120  c.c.  to  neck. 

B  =  100  c.c.  to  neck. 

B  for  sulphuric  acid. 

A  for  ores,  etc. 

a  is  closed  at  b  with  wax  ball. 

Note.  —  Exact  weight  of  A  and 
B  must  be  known  after  they  are 
charged  —  that  is,  before  C02  is 
allowed  to  come  off. 


Now  make  some  H2S04  flow  from  B  to  A,  by  applying 
suction  to  d  by  means  of  a  rubber-tube.  C02  goes  oft*  imme- 
diately ;  when  it  ceases,  let  some  more  H2S04  pass  in,  and 
complete  this  until  the  manganese  ore  is  completely  decom- 
posed. Take  five  to  ten  minutes. 

Let  the  apparatus  be  weighed  again  after  becoming  cool. 
The  loss  will  equal  C02.  The  number  of  centigrams  lost, 
divided  by  2  or  3,  according  to  the  multiple  of  0.9887  gram 
used,  expresses  the  percentage  of  manganese  dioxide  in  the  ore 
treated. 


ANALYSIS  OF   PYROLUSITE. 

Mn,  Mn 83.56  

O 

BaO 

Si02 

H30 


14.58 


1.86 


Total 100.00  . 

Analysis  by ARFVEDSON. 


85.62 

11.60 

0.66 

0.55 

1.57 

100.00 

TURNEB. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


397 


SCHEME   FOR   THE  ANALYSIS   OF   ILMENITE. 

Fuse  1  gram  with  3  grams  of  NaF  -f  12  grams  K2S207 
thoroughly.  Dissolve  in  large  volume  of  cold  water.  If 
there  is  any  residue,  fuse  and  dissolve  as  before.  Neutralize 
with  Na2C03  until  a  slight  precipitate  appears,  which  dissolve 
in  H2S04,  so  the  fluid  will  be  slightly  acid.  Saturate  with 
H2S  gas  ;  boil  one  hour,  adding  from  time  to  time  H2S  water. 
Filter  off  the  precipitate,  and  wash  with  water  containing  H2S. 
The  precipitate  will  be  Ti02  +  S.  Ignite  and  weigh  =Ti02. 
If  the  precipitate  contains  iron,  fuse  over  again,  etc. 

ANALYSIS   OF   ILMENITE. 


Ti02 

(Hystatite.) 
24  19     

(Ilmenite.) 
4667 

(Hystatite.) 

2528 

Fes03  
FeO  

MnO 

..     53.01  
..     19.91  

.     11.71   
.     85.37  
239 

51.84 
22.86 

MgO  
OaO  
SiO,  
Cr  O 

..       0.63  
.  .       0.33  
.  .       1.77  

.       0.60  
.       0.25  .  .  .    . 

.       2.80  
038 

— 

Total         .    . 

.  .     99.89 

10017 

9998 

Analysis  by 

MOSANDEB. 

MOSANDER. 

KENDALL. 

SCHEME  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  NATROLITE. 

Moisten  2  grams  of  the  pulverized  mineral  with  water,  and 
digest  in  concentrated  HC1 ;  heat,  evaporate  over  water-bath ; 
break  up  residue  with  stirring-rod,  and  get  a  powTder. 

It  must  neither  be  under  or  over  heated.  Cover  with  paper 
and  put  in  air-bath,  heat  to  125°  C.  Let  it  dry  for  two  or 
three  hours,  moisten  with  concentrated  HC1  and  let  stand  a 
few  minutes.  Warm  gently,  then  add  water.  The  bases  go 
into  solution  and  Si02  separates,  which  is  weighed. 


398 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


Divide  filtrate  into  two  parts  : 


IST  PAKT. 

To  determine  Na30,  add  caustic 
baryta,  which  precipitates  Al,  Fe, 
Mg.  The  filtrate  will  contain  BaO, 
CaO,  and  alkalies.  To  remove  BaO 
and  CaO  add  (NH4)2CO3  and  filter. 
Test  to  see  if  CaO  is  present  and 
burn  off  (NH4)HO.  Wash  out  evap- 
orating dish  with  smallest  amount 
of  water,  add  HC1  and  evaporate  in 
a  weighed  dish,  and  the  residue  will 
be  NaCI,  which  weigh. 


2D  PART. 


To  determine  Fe,  Al,  Mg,  treat 
this  2d  part  in  the  usual  manner. 
Precipitate  the  Fe  and  Al  by 
(NHJHS,  etc. 


ANALYSIS    OF    NATROL1TE. 


SiO 

4800 

4721 

4450 

Al,03  
Fe  O 

..     24.25  
1  75 

25.60  
135 

30.05 
098 

CaO     

0.83 

NaO 

1650 

1612 

13  52 

H  O 

9  00 

8  88  , 

993 

Total  
Analysis  by. 

,  .  .     99.50 
.  .  .  KLAPBOTH. 

99.16 
FUCHS. 

99.81 

SCHEEBEB. 

SCHEME   FOR   FELDSPAR   OR  ORTHOCLASE 
ANALYSIS,  « 

Mix  the  finely-powdered  mineral,  dried  at  200°,  with  four 
or  five  parts  of  baric  carbonate ;  this  is  then  exposed  to  an 
intense  white  heat  by  a  blowpipe.  When  the  contents  are 
aggregated  into  a  cinder-like  mass,  the  mass  is  then  turned 
out  of  the  crucible  into  a  capacious  dish,  a  quantity  of  water 
poured  over  it,  and  hydrochloric  acid  added  in  slight  excess 
until  it  is  completely  dissolved,  with  the  exception  of  some 
gelatinous  Si02  which  separates.  The  whole  solution  is  then 
evaporated  to  perfect  dryness;  then  moisten  with  HC1  and  dis- 
solve in  H20  and  filter  off  Si02,  which  weigh. 

Precipitate  the  baryta  in  the  filtrate  with  H2S04  (very  lit- 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


399 


tie);  filter,  and  concentrate  the  filtrate,  add  (NH4)HS  and 
precipitate  the  A1203,  and  filter.  Evaporate  the  filtrate  to 
dryness,  and  ignite  it  to  expel  ammonia  salts.  The  residue  is 
sulphate  of  potash,  and  is  weighed.  If  soda  is  present  it  must 
be  separated. 

ANALYSIS    OF    FELDSPAR   (ORTHOCLASE). 

SKX 66.75  67.01  65.10 

A1303 17.50  18.60  )  3013 


17.50 
1.75 


MgO. 
CaO. 


18.60 
0.85 
0.19 


125 


0.56 


) 12.00 

Total 99.25 

Analysis  by . .  .     ROSE. 


11.41 
100.63 

DUEKRB. 


2.42 
12.80 

100.44 
HAYES. 


SCHEME   FOR   THE   ANALYSIS   OF   DOLOMITE 
OR   MARBLE. 

It  may  contain  CaO,  MgO,  Si02,  A1203,  Fe203.  Dissolve 
1.5  grams  in  HC1  +  HN03,  evaporate  to  dryness,  moisten  with 
HC1,  add  H20  and  filter. 


RESIDUE. 

Si02  and  silicates  fuse  in  platinum 
crucible  with  Na2C03;  moisten  with 


A  FILTRATE  +  B. 

Warm,    add    NH4C1  +  (NH4)HO, 
and  filter. 


H2O,  add  an  exce 
rate,  dissolve  in  H2 

RESIDUE. 
.  SiOa,  weigh. 

33  of  HC1,  evapo- 
O  and  filter. 

B  FILTRATE. 

Add  to  first  Fil- 
trate A. 

PRECIPITATE. 

A12O3  +  Fe203 
(CaO,  MgO?). 
Wash  with  a  lit- 
tle hot  water,  dis- 
solve in  HC1,  re- 

E  FILTRATE  +  C. 

CaO,  MgO. 
Concentrate  if 
too   bulky  ;    acid- 
ify with   HC1    if 
cloudy  ;  then  add 
(NH4)HO  + 
(NH4)2C204;    al- 
low   the    precipi- 
tate to  stand  over 

precipitate,  filter, 
add  Filtrate  (C)  to  Filtrate  (E\   The  precipitate  =  A12O8 
+"Fe;,O3,  which  weigh  or  separate. 

night ;  pour  the  clear  liquid  through  the  filter  ;  wash  the  precipitate  in  the 
beaker  once  or  twice  with  H,0 ;  pour  the  clear  liquid  through  the  filter 
and  dissolve  the  precipitate  in  HC1.  Reprecipitate  with  (NH4)8C804  and 
filter. 


400 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


PRECIPITATE. 

CaC3O4.  Moisten  with  H2SO4  = 
2CaSO4  and  ignite  in  platinum  cru- 
cible ;  cautiously  moisten  with  dilute 
H8S04  ;  heat  and  weigh. 


FILTRATE. 

MgO.  Concentrate  if  too  bulky, 
and  acidify  if  cloudy  with  HC1.  Add 
an  excess  of  (NH4)HO,  then  add 
Na8HP04.  Filter  off  precipitate  = 
MgHP04  ;  wash  with  [1(NH4)HO  + 
3H20]  ;  dry  and  weigh. 


For  C02  determination  take  about  1.5  grams,  use  apparatus 
which  is  used  in  Pyrolusite. 

For  S  and  P05  determinations,  digest  6  grams  in  HN03  and 
divide. 

ANALYSIS  OF    DOLOMITE. 


(Jena,cryst.) 


(Miemite.) 


CaC03 55.22 57.91  .. 

MgC03 44.77 38.97  . . 

FeC03 1.74  ) 

MnC03 0.57  ) 

H20 —     .. 

FeO . .                                     —  — 


(La  Valenciana.) 
,  . .  .  53.18 
.  84.35 


Total 99.99  ... 

Analysis  by SUCKOW. 


93.19   .. 

RAMMELSBERG. 


10.46 

1.22 
0.22 

99.43 
ROTH. 


SCHEME   FOR  THE  ANALYSIS   OF  WHITE   LEAD. 

The  substances  likely  to  be  found  are  BaS04,  clay,  ZnO, 
PbS04,  PbC03,  CaC03,  CaS04,  H20  +  oil.  Digest  10  grains 
of  the  material  in  a  flask  with  ether ;  filter  and  wash.  Weigh 
out  of  the  powder  2  grams,  and  dissolve  in  HN03;  boil  and 
filter. 

FILTRATE  A. 

ZnO,  PbO,  CaO  ;  treat  with  H8S  in 
presence  of  considerable  acid,  and 
filter. 

SOLUTION  B. 

Zn  +  CaO  in  solution;  add  (NH4) 
HO  +  (NH)4HS  ;  filter  and  wash. 

FILTRATE  C. 


RESIDUE  A. 

BaSO4,  clay ;  weigh,  and  separate 
if  desirable. 

PRECIPITATE  B. 
=  PbS ;  weigh  as  PbS04. 


RESIDUE  C. 
=  ZnS ;  convert  into  ZnC03,  and 
weigh  as  ZnO. 


CaO;    add  (NH4)SC2O4,  and  the 
precipitate  will  be  CaC204. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


401 


To  determine  S03  in  the  shape  of  PbS04  +  CaS04,  dissolve 
3  grams  in  boiling  dilute  HCl;  add  a  little  ammonic  citrate 
or  acetate ;  filter  and  determine  S03  as  usual. 

This  scheme  will  apply  also  to  zincic  pigments. 

SCHEME   FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  TYPE   METAL 

May  contain  Sb,  Pb  (Sn,  Zn,  Fe).  Dissolve  I  gram  of  metal 
in  HN03  +  tartaric  acid  at  a  gentle  heat;  filter  and  wash. 


SOLUTION.                                             RESIDUE. 

Sb,  Pb  (Zn  +  Fe);  add  H2SO4  to 

Sn02  may  contain  a  little  Pb  and 

solution  ;  heat  to  boiling,  and  filter. 

Sb2  ;   ignite  the  residue  and  weigh. 

Fuse  with  Na2CO3  +  S  ;   dissolve  in 

SnO2  may  contain  a  little  Pb  and 
Sb  ;   ignite  the  residue  and   weigh. 
Fuse  with  Na2C03+S;   dissolve  in 
hot  H2O  and  filter.     Residue  =  PbS. 

hot  H2O,  and  filter.    Residue  =  PbS. 
Heat   in  a  porcelain    crucible   with 
HNO3  which   gives   PbS04  ;   ignite 
and  weigh.    Add  to  Residue  A. 

Heat  in  porcelain  crucible  with  HNO3                            SOLUTION. 

which  gives  PbS04  ;  ignite  and  weigh.       Add  HCl  ;  precipitate=Sb2S3SnS3  ; 

Add  to  Residue  A.                                     oxidize  with  HN03  ;  fuse  with  NaHO 

RESIDUE  A. 
Will  be  PbS04  ; 

in  silver  dish.      Dissolve  mass  in  3 

,    alcohol  +  IH3Oand  filter. 
Sb,  Pb  (Zn  and 

dry  and  weigh. 

.Fe);  pass  in  H3S  !         RESIDUE. 

SOLUTION. 

PRECIPITATE. 

gas     and     filter,       NaSbO3  ;  warm 

Sn    as    Na2Sn 

SbS3+PbS;  di- 

washing    w  i  t  h  j  with  HCl  ;  dilute 

03  ;  acidulate  with 

gest  with  yellow 
sulphide  of  ammo- 
nia and  filter. 

RESIDUE. 

H2S  water. 

SOLUTION. 
Add(NH4)HS; 
precipitate  =  Fe 
and  Zn. 

with     H2O     and 
precipitate    with 
H2S  the    Sb   as 
Sb2S3  ;    treat    as 
before. 

HCl  ;  precipitate 
by  H2S  =  SnS2  ; 
ignite  with  Sn02, 
and  weigh. 

Will    be    PbS; 

heat   in   a    porce- 

SOLUTION. 

lain  crucible  with 
HNO3,      which 
gives  PbSO4  ;  ig- 
nite   and    weigh, 

(NH4)HS,   Sb2 
S3  ;      precipitate 
with  HCl  =  SbS3 
+  S  ;      evaporate 

NOTE.  —  The  above  schemes  show 
only  how  to  separate  the  constitu- 
ents.   For  further  information,   see 

and  add  to  Resi- 

with HNO3  in  a 

resenius. 

due  A. 

porcelain      cruci- 

ble ;    burn   filter 

paper  with  NH4 

NO  3  and  add  ;  ig- 

nite the  whole  and 

weigh  as  Sb04. 

402 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 
ANALYSIS  OF  TYPE    METAL 


METALS. 

>, 

1 

1 

| 

•S 

Bismuth. 

I 

Type  metal  

15.5 

69 

15.5 

Printing  characters 

20 

80 

Babbitt  metal  .... 

7.3 

37 

89 



50 

25 

.  

White  metal  

56.8 

_ 

74 

984 

74 

Pewter  

14 

86 

Metal  that  expands  in  cooling 

167 

75 

83 

SCHEME  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  A  SILVER  COIN. 

It  contains  Au,  Ag2S,  Ag,  Pb,  Cu. 

Boil  in  KHO  to  clean  it ;  then  weigh,  dissolve  in  HN03  (free 
from  Cl),  and  filter. 


PRECIPITATE. 

Au,  Ag2S.  Dry;  weigh;  wrap  in 
a  piece  of  Pb  and  cupel.  This  de- 
stroys the  AgS.  Add  also  a  little 
piece  of  silver  (the  weight  of  which 
must  be  known) ;  dissolve  the  button 
in  HNO3,  and  filter. 


RESIDUE. 
Au. 


FILTRATE. 
AgNO3  ;  add  to 
Filtrate  A. 


FILTRATE  A. 

AgN03,Pb(N03)2,Cu(N03)J 
HC1  and  filter. 


add 


PRECIPITATE. 
AgCl. 


FILTRATE. 
PbCl2  +  CuCl2; 
add  about  10  c.c. 
ofH2SO4;  evaporate  to  dryness  ;  dis- 
solve in  H2O ;  filter  and  wash  with 
water  containing  a  little  alcohol. 


PRECIPITATE. 
=  PbS04. 


FILTRATE. 

=  CuS04. 
Precipitate    with 
KHO,  and  test  fil- 
trate with  HS. 


ANALYSIS  OF   SILVER   COIN.* 

Ag 51.49 

Cu.... 47.91 

Pb 63 

Au..  .02 


Total 100.05 


*  Poor,  Spanish  coin. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  403 

SCHEME   FOR   THE  ANALYSIS   OF   FERTILIZERS. 

Aspirator 


NITROGEN  TUBE. 


Fertilizers  owe  their  value  to  P205  (soluble  and  insoluble  to 
NH3  and  K20). 

1st.  Those  that  furnish  insoluble  P205 ;  as  bone  ash,  bone 
black,  rock  guanos,  apatite,  green  marl. 

2d.  Those  that  furnish  insoluble  P205  +  NH3;  as  bones, 
meat  scraps,  dried  blood,  and  almost  all  animal  matter. 

3d.  Those  that  furnish  NH3. 

4th.  Those  that  furnish  soluble  P205,  as  superphosphates. 

To  determine  insoluble  P205,  weigh  out  2  grams,  place  in  a 
porcelain  dish  and  evaporate  with  HN03,  and  bring  into  solu- 
tion. To  destroy  organic  matter,  add  KC103.  Divide  the 
solution  in  halves,  and  heat  with  Mo03.  Wash  the  yellow 
precipitate  with  Mo03  and  dissolve  it  in  (NH4)HO,  and  repre- 
cipitate  with  magnesia  mixture. 

To  determine  the  soluble  P205,  take  1.5  grams,  pulverize 
finely,  and  dissolve  in  cold  H20,  and  determine  P205  as  usual. 

The  determination  of  the  nitrogen  is  conducted  by  mixing 
the  substance  with  soda-lime  and  heating.  The  H  which  is 
formed  goes  to  the  N,  and  0  to  C,  by  splitting  H20. 

The  nitrogen  tube,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  -is  placed  in  a 
gas  furnace,  or  in  a  charcoal  furnace.  Determine  NH3  with 
PtCl4  or  with  a  normal  HC1  solution. 

Multiply  the  determined  value  of  P205  in  bone  phosphate 
by  2.18  =  Ca3  (P04)2. 


404 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


COMPLETE   ANALYSIS. 

May  contain :  Si02,  A1203,  Fe203,  CaO,  MgO,  K20,  Na20, 
C02,  NH3,  insoluble  P205,  soluble  P205,  H2S04,  H20,  organic 
matter. 

Use  special  methods  for  total  P205,  soluble  P205,  K20, 
Na20,  NH3,  H20,  C02. 

For  Si02,  A1203,  Fe203,  CaO,  MgO,  H2S04,  dissolve  5  grams 
in  HC1,  evaporate  to  dryness,  moisten  with  HC1,  add  water, 
and  filter. 


RESIDUE  A 
Si03,  ignite  and  weigh. 


SOLUTION  A. 

Dilute  to  500  c.c. 
Divide  in  four  parts. 


1st.  200  c.c. 

Precipitate  CaO 
by     H2S04     and 
alcohol.     (Not  too 
much  alcohol  nor 

3d.  100  c.c. 

Determine     Fe 
with  K2Mn208. 

3d.  100  c.c. 

Determine  H  2  SO  4 
with  BaCl"2. 

4th.  100  c.c. 

Determine  A1,O3 
by  adding  a  solu- 
tion of  4  grams  of 
NaC2H3Oo.     The 

metallic  iron  to  liquid  +  Na2Co3  4 

too  little.  About 
2  vols.  alcohol  to 
1  of  solution  was 
with  this  solution. 
Precip.  =  CaS04. 
Test  after  weigh- 
ing for  A12O3  and 
Fe203. 


precipitate  =  Al.,03  +  Fe2O3  +  P203.    Ignite  and  weigh, 
and  deduct  Fe203  +  P3O5. 


To  filtrate  from  1st  part  add  NaHP04  and  (NH4)HO,  and  precipitate  = 
MgNH4PO4.     Ignite  and  weigh  as  Mg2P2O7,  and  determine  MgO. 


ANALYSIS   OF  WATERS. 

BRIEF  RULES  WITH  REGARD  TO  MINERAL  WATERS. 

I.  If  the  water  reddens  blue  litmus-paper  before  boiling, 
but  not  afterward,  and  the  blue  color  of  the  reddened  paper  is 
restored  upon  warming,  it  is  a  carbonate. 

II.  If  it  possesses  a  nauseous  odor,  and  gives  a  black  precip- 
itate with  acetate  of  lead,  it  is  sulphurous. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  405 

III.  If,  after  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  it  gives  a  blue  precipitate  with  yellow  or  red  potassium 
prussiate,  the  water  is  a  chalybeate. 

IY.  If  it  restores  the  blue  color  to  litmus-paper  after  boil- 
ing, it  is  alkaline. 

Y.  If  it  possesses  neither  of  the  above  properties  in  a 
marked  degree,  and  leaves  a  large  residue  on  evaporation,  it  is 
saline  water. 

COMPLETE  ANALYSIS   OF   MINERAL   WATERS, 

WHEN    CONTAINING  ALKALINE   CARBONATES. 

FOE  TOTAL  SOLIDS. — Evaporate  0.5  litre  in  weighed  Pt  dish ; 
dry  to  constant  weight  at  130°  C.,  and  weigh. 

FOE  Fe203  +  Al203  +  CaO  +  MgO —  Si02,  acidulate  1  litre 
and  evaporate  to  dryness  in  Pt  dish ;  moisten  with  HC1  and 
treat  with  hot  water;  filter,  wash,  etc.  Dry  residue,  ignite 
and  weigh.  Then  expel  Si02  with  NH4F1,  and  weigh  again. 
The  loss  is  Si02.  Should  any  residue  be  left,  examine  it  in 
the  SPECTEOSCOPE. 

Treat  the  filtrate  with  (NH4)HO  and  NH4C1 ;  boil  to  precipi- 
tate Fe203,  A1203,  and  P205 ;  filter,  etc.  Dissolve  the  pre- 
cipitate, and  reprecipitate ;  add  the  filtrate  and  washings  to 
the  first,  and  in  the  combined  filtrates  determine  the  CaO, 
MgO  as  usual. 

FOE  S03,  acidulate  1  litre  with  HC1,  evaporate  to  small 
volume  in  a  porcelain  dish,  and  precipitate  with  BaCl3  as 
usual. 

FOE  SODIC  CAEBONATE,  evaporate  1  litre  of  the  water  to 
dryness ;  treat  with  water  and  test  with  a  standard  solution  of 
H2S04  or  other  acid+Na2C03-f  Li2C03 ;  or  evaporate  1  litre 
to  dryness,  dissolve  in  water,  filter,  wash.  The  sodic  or 
lithic  carbonate  go  into  solution.  To  the  filtrate  add  a  mix- 
ture of  CaCl2  +  (NH4)HO  [prepared  by  dissolving  60  grams 
CaCl2  in  250  c.c.  water,  adding  100  c.c.  (NH4)HO]  in  excess; 
filter  and  wash  rapidly. 


406  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

The  CO 2  goes  to  the  lime ;  the  soda  and  lithia  are  washed 
out  as  chlorides.  Dissolve  the  CaC03  on  the  filter  with  HC1, 
then  precipitate  as  oxalate;  either  determine  as  CaS04  or 
ignite  to  CaO,  and  estimate  the  corresponding  amount  of  CaC03  ; 
from  this  calculate  the  Na2C03  by  the  proportion, 

At.  "Wt.  CaC03  :  At.  Wt.  Na2C03  :  :  CaC03  found  :  Na2C03. 

FOE  POTASSIC  OXIDE. — Take  1  litre  of  water ;  evaporate  nearly 
to  dryness  in  a  silver  dish;  filter,  wash  with  boiling  water, 
evaporate  in  Pt  or  porcelain  dish  with  slight  excess  of  HC1  + 
PtCl4  to  dryness,  or  nearly  so,  on  water-bath.  Then  dissolve 
in  a  mixture  of  2  parts  alcohol  and  1  part  ether.  Filter  out 
KC1,  PtCl4 ;  wash  very  completely  with  the  same ;  dry,  trans- 
fer to  crucible,  and  ignite  with  oxalic  acid.  (See  Fresenius.) 

TOTAL  CHLORINE. — Test  yj^  gallons  with  standard  solution 
AgN03  —  (1  c.c.  =  0.1  grain  NaCl). 

FOR  CARBONIC  ACID. — Take  200  c.c.  of  the  water  previously 
treated  at  the  spring  with  "  CaCl2-f(NH4)HO  preparation," 
being  careful  to  clear  the  neck  of  the  bottle  from  all  fat,  etc. 
Keep  the  bottle  in  boiling  water  until  the  effervescence  ceases ; 
then  filter  out  the  CaC03,  rinsing  the  bottle  thoroughly  with 
water.  Keep  the  bottle  for  after  treatment.  Wash  the  CaC03 
on  the  filter,  as  long  as  the  wash-water  gives  a  reaction  with 
(NH4)2C204. 

This  washing  should  be  done  rapidly,  to  avoid  the  forma- 
tion of  CaC03  by  the  C02  in  the  atmosphere,  acting  on  the 
CaH202  present.  Then  dissolve  the  CaC03  adhering  to  the 
bottle  with  a  little  HC1,  and  wash  into  a  beaker.  Then  punch 
a  hole  in  the  filter  and  wash  the  CaC03  into  same  beaker, 
cleansing  the  filter  with  HC1.  Boil  to  expel  C02,  and  deter- 
mine the  lime  as  oxalate  or  caustic,  and  calculate  the  C02. 

MAIN   ANALYSIS. 

Evaporate  10-20  gallons  of  the  water  to  dryness  in  large 
porcelain  dishes  (perfect  dryness  is  not  necessary).  Treat  the 
residue  in  the  dishes  with  water ;  boil ;  decant  through  a  filter, 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  407 

repeating  the  operation  a  number  of  times ;  finally  bring  the 
insoluble  residue  on  the  filter;  wash  with  boiling  water  until 
the  residue  gives  only  a  faint  trace  of  lithia  in  the  spectroscope 
(in  case  lithia  is  present). 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  RESIDUE.  Insoluble  in  hot  water  (in 
case  lithia  be  not  present  in  such  quantity  or  in  such  a  form 
as  not  to  be  completely  removed  by  hot  water).  Dissolve 
residue  in  HC1;  evaporate  to  dry  ness;  add  concentrated  HC1 
to  the  dry  mass ;  dilute  with  water  and  filter  off  residue,  which 
consists  of  Si02  and  perhaps  BaS04,  in  case  S03  and  BaO  are 
present  in  the  water.  Divide  filtrate  from  Si02  into  three 
equal  parts. 

Treatment  of  first  one-third  part  of  solution  for 

PHOSPHORIC    ACID. 

Drive  off  excess  of  HC1  from  solution,  and  then  remove  it 
entirely  by  boiling  with  concentrated  HN03  ;  precipitate  with 
(NH4)2Mo04  and  proceed  as  usual. 

Treatment  of  second  one-third  part  of  solution  for 

IRON. 

Precipitate  the  iron  with  NH4HO  and  NH4C1,  as  usual ;  filter, 
wash,  and  re-dissolve  the  precipitate  in  HC1  (or  perhaps  better 
H2S04) ;  reduce  with  amalgamated  zinc  and  Pt,  determine 
volumetrically  with  K2Mn208. 

Treatment  of  third  one-third  part  of  solution  for 

BARYTA    AND    STRONTIA. 

Dilute  solution  with  water  and  add  dilute  H2S04;  boil 
(enough  acid  should  be  added  to  precipitate  a  little  lime,  or 
else  some  SrO  may  remain  in  solution).  The  precipitate,  con- 
sisting of  (BaS04)  SrS04,  CaS04,  should  be  treated  with  a 


408  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

strong  solution  of  (NH4)2C03,  which  converts  the  CaS04  and 
SrS04  into  carbonates,  while  the  BaS04  is  unaffected.  The 
carbonates  are  then  dissolved  away  from  the  BaS04  on  the 
filter  with  hot  HC1.  The  HC1  solution,  containing  CaCl2  and 
SrCl2,  is  evaporated  to  dryness ;  the  chlorides  converted  into 
nitrates;  the  calcic  nitrate  dissolved  out  by  digesting  with  a 
mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether.  (See  Fres.)  The  Sr(N03)2  is 
dissolved  in  water  and  precipitated  as  SrS04  with  dilute 
H2S04. 

All  the  precipitates  should  be  examined  in  the  spectroscope, 
to  ascertain  if  the  operations  have  been  perfect. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  RESIDUE,  insoluble  in  hot  water.  In 
case  lithia  be  present  in  such  quantity,  or  in  such  a  form,  as 
not  to  be  completely  removed  by  boiling  water,  divide  the 
HC1  solution  into  four  equal  parts,  and  take  one  part  for  the 
determination  of  lithia,  using  the  other  three  as  already  stated. 
Precipitate  out  with  (NH4)2C03  and  proceed  according  to 
Fresenius,  §  209,  p.  564,  in  order  to  free  the  lithia  from  all 
other  bases  precipitable  by  NaP03. 

TREATMENT  OF  WATER  SOLUTION  resulting  from  the  diges- 
tion with  hot  water  of  the  residue  obtained  by  evaporation  of 
10  to  20  gallons.  Evaporate  to  dryness,  pulverize  the  residue, 
and  weigh ;  divide  into  two  portions,  one  for  lithia,  and  one 
for  iodine  and  bromine. 

DETERMINATION    OF    LITHIA. 

Moisten  the  dry  salt  with  HC1  and  evaporate  on  the  water- 
bath  to  dryness,  in  order  to  convert  the  lithia  into  the  chloride. 

Place  the  salt  in  a  glass  flask  and  agitate  with  absolute  alco- 
hol, decanting  solution  through  a  filter  until  the  salt  gives  no 
reaction  for  lithia  in  the  spectroscope.  Evaporate  oif  the  alco- 
hol on  a  water-bath ;  dissolve  the  residue  in  water.  Treat  the 
solution  thus  obtained  according  to  Fresenius  (§  101,  p.  159), 
in  order  to  separate  lithia. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  409 


DETERMINATION    OF    IODINE    AND    BROMINE. 

Place  the  dry  salt  in  a  flask,  boil  on  a  water-bath  repeatedly 
with  70%  alcohol,  until  the  salt  gives  no  reaction  for  bromine 
when  treated  with  chlorine  water  and  carbon  disulphide. 
Evaporate  the  alcoholic  solution  upon  the  water-bath;  dissolve 
the  residue  in  water.  Add  PdCl2  to  a  slight  excess  and  heat ; 
allow  the  whole  to  stand  for  some  time,  then  filter  o^t  the 
precipitated  Pdl2,  wash  with  warm  water,  dry  and  ignite. 

Divide  the  filtrate  from  the  Pdl  into  two  equal  portions. 
Precipitate  each  with  AgN03.  Filter  off  the  AgCl -f- AgBr; 
wash,  dry,  ignite  one  precipitate,  and  weigh.  Place  the  other 
precipitate  of  AgCl  +  AgBr  in  a  beaker  and  digest  in  the  heat 
for  1  hour,  with  a  solution  of  KBr(lKBr  +  9H20),  whereby  the 
AgCl  is  completely  converted  into  AgBr.  From  these  data 
estimate  the  amount  of  bromine  in  the  first  precipitate.  About 
as  much  KBr  is  required  for  the  conversion  as  there  is  AgCl  in 
the  precipitate.  See  "  Wittstein  Zeitschrift  fur  Aualytische 
Chemie,"  1863,  S.  159. 

CaCl2  +  (NH4)HO    MIXTURE. 

60  grams  CaCl2  in  250  c.c.  H20.  Add  100  c.c.  (NH4)HO, 
boil,  filter,  add  100  c.  c.  (NH4)HO,  dilute  to  500.  c.c. 

NOTE  I. — In  case  H2S04  be  present  in  a  water,  the  residue  insoluble  in 
HC1  may  contain  BaSO4,  and  perhaps  SrSO4.  Treat  residue  with  pure 
NH4F1,  to  expel  Si02,  weigh,  and  test  the  residue  in  the  spectroscope. 


GRAMS    IN     U.    S.    GALLON     (231    cubic    inches). 


58318 1 

116636 2 

174954 3 

233272 4 

291590  . .  .5 


349908 6 

408226 7 

466544 8 

524862 9 

583180...      10 


410 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


METHOD    OF    CALCULATING    WATER    ANALYSIS. 

United  States  gallon  contains  231  en.  inches  =  58318  grains 
of  distilled  H20  at  60°  Fah. 

Suppose  an  analysis  of  a  litre  of  water  gave  the  following. 
Required  the  number  of  grains  of  each  substance  in  a  gallon. 

1  Litre.  Grains  in  a  Gallon. 

Na20 0.031   1.807 

CaO 0.173  10.089 

Cl 0.172 10.030 

Si02 0.250  14.579 

Multiply  each  substance  by  58318  and  divide  each  by  1000. 


TO  CALCULATE    HOW  ACIDS   AND    BASES   COMBINE. 
ORDINARY    DRINKING    WATERS. 


Na20. 
K20., 
CaO.. 
MgO.. 
Cl.  . . . 
SO,.. 
SiO,.. 


1  U.  S.  Gallon. 
. . . .     0.326 
, . . .     0.097 
, . . .     0.988 
. . . .     0  524 

. .  .     0.243 

. . . .     0.322 

0.621 


Organic  and  volatile  matter.     0.670 

COS  (calculated) 1.302 

Total. .  5.093 


Combined. 

K2S04 179 

NaCl 400 

Na2S04 .263 

CaS04 156 

CaCO3 1.650 

MgC03 1.100 

SiO2 621 

Org.  and  volatile  matter. .       .670 
Total..  5.039 


7th.  Give  SO,  to  CaO. 


1st.  Give  S03  to  K20. 

2d.      "      Cl      "  remainder  K20. 

3d.  "  "  "  Na. 
4th.  «  "  "  Mg. 
5th.  "  "  "  Ca. 
6th.  "  S03  "  Na2O. 

5.093  —  .054  (amount  of  oxygen  in  Na  used  to  make  NaCl)  —  5.039. 


8th. 

9th. 
10th. 
llth. 


"  "  MgO. 
C02  "  NaaO. 
"  "  CaO. 

««      «<  MgO. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  411 

ANALYSIS  OF  A   MINERAL  WATER. 

HATIIORN  SPRING,  SARATOGA  SPRINGS. 

By  G.  F.  Chandler. 

Sodic  Chloride 509.968  grains. 

Potassic  Chloride 9.597     " 

Sodic  Bromide 1.534     " 

Sodic  Iodide 198      " 

Calcic  Fluoride A  trace. 

Lithic  Bicarbonate 11.447      " 

Sodic  Dicarbonate 4.288      " 

Magnesic  Dicarbonate 176.463 

Strontic  Bicarbonate A  trace. 

Baric  Bicarbonate 1.737      " 

Ferrous  Bicarbonate 1.128      " 

Potassic  Sulphate None. 

Sodic  Phosphate 006      <: 

Sodic  Biborate A  trace. 

Aluminic  Oxide 131      " 

Silicic  Oxide 1.260      " 

Organic  Matter A  trace. 

Total  solid  contents 888.403  grains. 

Carbonic  oxide  (C02)  in  1  gal.,  375.747  inches ;  density  1.009. 

ANALYSIS   OF  THE   ATLANTIC   OCEAN 

(By  VON  BIBRA) 

AND   OF  THE   DEAD   SEA 

(By  the  HEREPATHS). 

Atlantic  Ocean.  Dead  Sea. 

Specific  Gravity 1.0275 1.17205 

Sodic  Chloride 1671.34       6702.73 

Potassic  Chloride —         682.63 

Ammonic  Chloride —         3.35 

Calcic  Chloride 1376.75 

Magnesic  Chloride 199.66       4457.23 

Aluminic  Chloride 31.37 

Ferrous  Chloride Trace 1.50 

Manganous  Chloride —         . . . . , 3.35 

Sodic  Bromide...                                   31.16  156.53 


Carried  forward 1903.18      13416.61 


412 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL 


Atlantic  Ocean.  Dead  Sea. 

Brought  forward 1903.18 1341 6.61 

Sodic  Iodide. Trace Trace. 

Potassic  Sulphate 108.46       i 

Magnesic  Sulphate 34.99       '. 

Calcic  Sulphate 93.30       38.07 

Sodic  Phosphate Trace 

Calcic  Carbonate Trace Trace. 

Silver Trace 

Copper Trace.      ...    

Lead Trace 

Arsenic Trace 

Silicic  Oxide Trace Trace. 

Organic  Matter Trace 34.59 

Bitumen —        Trace. 

Total  in  1  U.  S.  gallon. . . .  2139.93  gr 1348917^ 

Per  cent,  by  weight 3.569     19.733 

Water 96.431     '. 80.267 

Total 100.000     100.00 

Weight  of  1  gallon. .  .59922.  grs 68352.    grs. 


POTABLE    WATER   ANALYSIS. 

(J.  Chem.  Society,  London,  vol.  xxi,  p.  771.) 
I.  TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Evaporate  J  litre  to  dryness  rapidly  at  100°  C.  to  constant 
weight. 

II.  ORGANIC   CARBON. 

To  2  litres  in  a  stoppered  bottle  add  60  c.c.  saturated  solution 
sulphurous  acid ;  J  of  this  (1  litre)  sulphurized  water  is  boiled 
for  two  or  three  minutes  (unless  it  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  carbonates) ;  then  add  0.200  grams  sodic  sulphite  to 
secure  saturation  of  S03  formed  during  subsequent  evapora- 
tion. To  secure  expulsion  of  N,  existing  as  nitrate,  add  2  drops 
FeCl2  or  Fe2Cl6.  Then  evaporate  boiled  water  to  dryness  in 
glass  capsule  of  100  c.c.  capacity,  keeping  capsule  without  a 
lip,  covered  with  paper  stretched  on  a  hoop  to  keep  out  dust ; 
there  should  be  no  (N  H4)HO  in  the  atmosphere ;  when  dry,  a  few 
grams  plumbic  chromate,  powdered,  are  added,  and  triturated 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  413 

with  contents  in  an  agate  mortar ;  when  the  mixture  is  com- 
plete the  contents  are  transferred  to  a  combustion  tube  six- 
teen inches  long  sealed  at  one  end,  and  the  capsule  rinsed  with 
PbCr04,  and  the  tube  charged  with  CuO  and  about  three 
inches  bright  copper  turnings.  Then  draw  out  open  end  and 
connect  with  a  Sprengel  pump,  letting  the  ends  of  glass  tubes 
touch  inside  of  rubber  tube,  and  plunge  the  joint  under  water. 
The  furnace  is  lighted  around  the  forward  end  of  combustion 
tube  and  the  pump  worked  for  five  or  ten  minutes.  The  de- 
livery end  of  the  pump  dips  into  a  mercury  bath,  and  a  tube 
filled  with  mercury  is  placed  over  it.  The  combustion  is  con- 
ducted as  usual.  When  the  organic  matter  begins  to  burn, 
the  operation  proceeds  slowly  until  the  vacuum  is  impaired  or 
carbonic  oxide  will  be  formed.  Combustion  lasts  forty-five 
minutes  to  one  hour.  Generally  no  gases  will  have  passed 
into  the  mercury  tube  unless  the  residue  is  very  rich  in  organic 
matter.  The  pump  is  now  worked  for  ten  minutes,  when  all 
the  gases  will  be  transferred  to  the  inverted  tube.  The  gases 
are  C02,  N,  and  N02.  (For  separation  and  determination  of 
these,  see  J.  Chem.  Soc.,  vol.  vi,  p.  197.) 

The  weights  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  are  deducted  from  the 
volumes  of  these  gases,  expressed  in  100.000  parts  of  water. 
The  nitrogen  may  have  been  present  as  organic  nitrogen  or  a 
constituent  of  NH3.  The  latter  is  determined  in  the  water 
directly  by  Nessler's  test.  The  nitrogen  in  this  deducted 
from  total  nitrogen  =  organic  nitrogen. 

NOTE. — CO  2  is  determined  by  solution  of  K2O  of  1.3  specific  gravity,  and 
oxygen  by  solution  of  pyrogallic  acid  (1  acid  to  6  water). 

A  correction  is  made  by  boiling  distilled  water  for  24  hours 
with  alkaline  potassic  permanganate,  and  then  distilling  it; 
refusing  the  distillate  as  long  as  it  shows  any  reaction  for 
(NH4)HO  by  Nessler's  test,  and  then  slightly  acidulating  it 
with  H2S04,  and  rectifying  it.  A  litre  of  this  is  acidified  with 
15  c.  c.  H2S04,  containing  about  1.100  grams  recently  ignited 
NaCl,  and  evaporated.  The  residue  must  now  be  burned  in 


414 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 
FIG.  2. 


PbCrO,. 


CuO  made  by  oxidizing  pure  sheet  copper 
in  muffle — not  from  Cu2N03. 

PbCrO4  to  be  heated  to  redness  for  2  hours, 
and  transferred  to  stoppered  bottle. 


MERCURY  TROUGH. 


vacuo,  and  the  carbon  and  nitrogen  obtained  deducted  from 
that  obtained  from  the  water  analyzed. 

N.  B. — See  J.  Ch.  Soc.,  London,  vol.  xxi,  for  apparatus  for  measuring 
gases,  also  without  absorbing  same,  and  tables  for  calculating  weight  of 
nitrogen,  etc.  See  particularly  Russell  on  Gr.  Analysis,  J.  Chem.  Soc., 
London,  vol.  xxi,  p.  128. 

3.    NITRATES    AND    NITRITES. 

The  solid  residue  of  J  litre  of  water  is  treated  with  a  small 
quantity  of  distilled  water — a  very  slight  excess  of  Ag2S04 
added,  to  convert  chlorides  into  sulphates.  The  filtered  liquid 
concentrated  in  a  small  beaker  to  2  or  3  c.  c.  This  is  trans- 
ferred to  a  tube  with  a  cup  and  stop-cock  (see  Fig.  2)  filled 
with  mercury  and  standing  in  a  mercury-trough — the  beaker 
being  washed  once  or  twice  with  a  little  recently-boiled  dis- 
tilled water,  finally  with  pure  H2S04  in  greater  volume  than 


° 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  415 

solution  and  rinsings.  If  air  gets  in,  push  tube  down  in  mer- 
cury and  draw  it  out.  Finally,  close  the  tube  firmly  at  the 
bottom  with  the  thumb,  and  shake ;  resisting  the  flowing  out 
of  the  mercury  between  the  acid  liquid  and  the  thumb.  In  3 
to  5  minutes  the  reaction  is  complete,  when  the  gas  is  trans- 
ferred to  a  measuring  apparatus  over  mercury. 
Half  the  volume  of  N02  in  tube=N;  the 
weight  calculated  from  the  volume.  Miller 
proposes  to  estimate  the  nitrates  by  the 
K2Mn208  solution,  of  which  1  c.c.  =  0.0023T 
grams  N203.  He  adopts  Pugh's  process  for 
nitrates.  Or,  J.  Ch.  Soc.,  vol.  xii,  p.  35. 


MILLER'S    METHOD    OF    K2Mn208. 

1  c.c.  =0.0001  gram  oxygen  requiring  0.395  gram  to 
1  litre  water.  Test  it  with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid  containing 
0.7875  gram  to  1  litre  water ;  100  c.c.  of  this,  warmed  with  a 
very  dilute  solution  of  H2S04  should  decolorize  100  c.c. 
K2Mn208  solution.  250  c.c.  of  the  water  to  be  tested  is 
placed  in  a  flask  with  3  c.c.  dilute  H2S04  (1  acid  +  3  water). 
Add  the  K2Mn208  solution  in  successive  portions  of  0.5  c.c. 
until  the  color  disappears,  and  until  after  the  last  addition  no 
change  takes  place  for  one-half  hour.  After  it  is  found  that 
no  change  takes  place,  the  last  0.5  c.c.  added  is  subtracted  as 
excess. 

ORGANIC    MATTER   IN   WATER. 
(Permanganate  Test.} 

Solution  made  is  that  1  c.c.  yields  0.0001  gram  oxalic 
acid,  then  1  litre  yields  0.100  gram  oxalic  acid. 

H2C204  and  2H20  =  126  requires  1  At.  0  =  16. 

16  :  126  : :  0.100  :  .7875  =  oxalic  acid. 
Then  .7875  oxalic  acid  requires  0.100  oxygen. 


416  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Then  .7875  oxalic  acid  dissolved  in  1  litre  H20  require  for 
each  c.c.  jVFff  =  .0001  oxygen.  Permanganate  is  diluted  until 
1  c.c.  oxidizes  1  c.c.  oxalic  acid  solution;  so  1  c.c.  K2.Mn208 
carries  0.0001  available  oxygen. 

AMMONIA. 

If  the  (N  H4)HO  be  not  alone  one  part  in  10,000,000,  which  is 
obtained  by  distillation  alone  or  with  Na2C03,  use  Hadow's 
modification  of  Nessler's  test.  If  it  be  alone  this,  Nessler's 
test  must  be  applied  directly  to  the  water.  The  water  must 
be  colorless,  free  from  carbonates  of  magnesia  and  lime.  Any 
tint  in  a  column  six  or  eight  inches  deep  is  fatal.  In  this  case 
add  a  few  drops  of  concentrated  solution  of  calcic  chloride  to 
one-half  litre  water,  and  precipitate  with  slight  excess  Na2C03  ; 

filter  after  an  hour ;  use  100  c.c. 
of  the  filtrate.  To  this  volume 
1  c.c.  of  the  Messier  solution  is 
added,  and  the  color  observed. 
See  Miller  on  Potable  Waters, 
J.  Ch.  Soc.,  vol.  xviii,  p.  125. 

Use  a  cylinder  of  such  diameter 
that  100  c.c.  form  a  column  seven 
inches  deep  ;  place  it  near  a  window. 

AMMONIA. 
(MILLER'S  METHOD  ) 

Into  a  capacious  retort  one  litre  water  is  introduced,  and 
the  retort  connected  with  a  Liebig's  condenser  ;  25  c.c.  of 
baric  hydrate  is  then  added  ;  250  c.  c.  water  distilled  over. 
The  residue  in  the  retort  is  filtered  and  separated  from  salts 
of  baryta  (carbonate  and  sulphate)  and  evaporated  for  deter- 
mination of  nitrates  by  Pugh's  method.  The  distillate  is 
divided  into  two  equal  portions ;  one  for  Nessler's  test,  as 
practised  by  Hadow. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  417 


NESSLER'S    SOLUTION. 

Make  a  concentrated  solution  of  40  grams  corrosive  subli- 
mate (HgCl2).  Dissolve  62.5  grams  Kl  in  300  c.c.  water,  and 
add  to  this  the  mercurial  solution  until  the  mercury  iodide 
ceases  to  be  dissolved  on  agitation.  Next  dissolve  150  grains 
K20  in  its  own  weight  of  water  and  add  it  gradually  to  the 
iodized  mercurial  solution,  stirring  while  mixing ;  then  dilute 
to  one  litre ;  let  it  stand  for  a  day  or  two  until  the  brown 
color  disappears,  and  it  becomes  clear.  Decant  the  clear 
liquid. 

About  3  c.c.  of  the  above  solution  is  added  to  the  half  of 
the  distillate,  same  as  one-half  litre.  If  (NH4)HO  be  present, 
a  yellow  color  will  appear;  if  the  NH3  be  ^-gu^^u  part,  make 
a  solution  of  NH4C1  0.317  grams  to  one  litre  of  water,  which 
is  equal  to  0.1  gram  NH3  in  one  litre. 

Place  3  c.c.  of  this  solution  in  a  beaker  of  same  size  used  for 
the  distillate ;  dilute  with  150  c.c.  water ;  add  3  c.c.  test  liquor. 
If  the  colors  coincide  then,  calculate  the  quantity  of  NH3. 
When  the  NH3  exceeds  0.6000  milligram  per  litre,  it  must 
be  determined  by  neutralizing  with  a  test  acid  solution.  The 
other  one-half  of  the  distillate  is  used.  The  solution  contains 
2.882  grams  H2S04  in  one  litre  water ;  1  c.c.  =  0.001  NH3, 
as  usual  with  litmus  solution. 

NITRIC    ACID. 
(FuCH's  ZdocU  Anal  Chem.,  vi,  175.) 

Concentrate  two  litres  water,  adding  K2Mn208  to  pink  color. 
Filter ;  concentrate  fluid ;  add  pure  H2S04  and  distil  into  a 
flask  containing  BaC03  suspended  in  H20  until  H2S04  goes 
over.  Filter  and  determine  the  Ba  existing  as  Ba(N03)2  and 
BaCl2.  Determine  Cl  elsewhere  and  calculate  the  HN03. 


4:18  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

TOTAL    RESIDUE. 
(WANKLYN.) 

Evaporate  100  c.  c.  in  a  small  platinum  dish  holding  about 
125  c.c.  The  dish  is  heated,  covered,  to  130°  C.,  cooled  on  a 
thick  piece  of  cold  iron  (still  covered).  Evaporate  over  steam 
so  as  not  to  allow  the  dish  to  come  in  contact  with  the  boiling 
water.  Use  a  can  with  a  funnel  in  it,  the  dish  standing  in  the 
funnel.  When  dry,  wipe,  transfer  to  air-bath ;  dry  at  130°  C., 
at  first  with  lid  on,  afterwards  without  it ;  cool  the  dish,  cov- 
ered, as  at  first,  on  cold  iron,  and  wreigh.  If  the  air-bath  is  at 
a  temperature  of  130°  when  the  dish  is  put  in,  the  determina- 
tion can  be  made  in  \\  hours.  Liability  to  error  on  account 
of  dust;  destruction  of  organic  matter  on  account  of  long  dry- 
ing, avoided. 

SOAP    TEST. 

Dissolve  marble  in  HC1;  dry;  fuse  in  a  weighed  crucible; 
weigh.  Difference  =  CaCl 2 .  Dissolve  with  water;  from 
known  weight  calculate  water  necessary  to  make  solution  so 
that  1  litre  =  1.110  grams  CaCl2 ;  each  cubic  centimetre  = 
0.001  =  1  c.c.  CaCl2  =  1  c.c.  CaC03. 

Take  2  parts  lead  plaster  and  1  K2C03  ;  pound  together  a 
little  at  a  time.  Extract  with  90^  alcohol,  30  times  as  much 
as  the  lead  plaster ;  allow  to  stand  for  some  time ;  filter ;  dilute 
with  its  own  volume  of  water. 

If  this  cannot  be  obtained,  use  good  potash  soap.  Measure 
accurately  10  c.  c.  of  the  soap  solution,  put  it  into  a  bottle 
with  70  c.c.  water,  and  add  CaCl2  solution  until  frothing  stops. 
Shaking  up  properly,  from  this  calculate  how  much  dilution  is 
necessary  to  make  IT  c.  c.  of  soap  solution  consume  16  c.  c. 
CaCl 2  solution ;  dilute  accordingly  with  alcohol  of  40$,  and 
verify.  [N.  B. — IT  c.  c.  standard  soap  test  should  neutralize 
16  c.  c.  of  standard  CaCl2  solution,  in  presence  of  TO  c.  c.  pure 
water.  Each  c.  c.  of  soap  solution  will  then  be  equal  to  1  mil- 
ligram CaC03,  or  its  equivalent,  or  0.010  grains  per  litre.] 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  419 

Take  70  c.  c.  of  the  water,  put  it  into  a  bottle,  add  soap 
solution  until  it  lathers ;  each  c.  c.  of  soap  =  1  gram  in  an 
English  gallon.  To  get  it  in  litres,  take  100  c.c.  water ;  each 
c.c.  soap  =  10  milligrams  CaC03  per  litre.  (This  is  not  abso- 
lutely exact.) 

If  more  than  17  c.c.  of  soap  is  required  in  70  c.c.,  dilute 
the  water  with  its  own  volume  of  distilled  water,  and  go  on, 
etc.  Wanklyn  claims  that  70  c.c.  distilled  water  have  a  soap- 
destroying  power  =  1  milligram  CaC03. 

NITRATES    AND    NITRITES. 

100  c.  c.  water  are  introduced  into  a  non-tubulated  retort ; 
50-70  c.  c.  solution  of  NaHO  added  (100  grams  Na20  to  1  litre 
water). 

Distil  until  not  more  than  100  c.  c.  remain,  and  until  no 
NH3  comes  over.  Now  cool,  and  introduce  a  thin  sheet  of 
aluminium. 

Then  incline  neck  upwards ;  close  it  with  a  cork  through 
which  passes  the  narrow  end  of  a  small  tube  2  or  3  inches 
long,  filled  with  broken  tobacco  clay-pipe  moistened  with 
dilute  HC1,  connected  with  a  second  tube  holding  pumice  sat- 
urated with  H2S04 ;  allow  to  stand  for  some  hours ;  then  wash 
the  contents  of  the  pipe-clay  tube  back  into  the  retort  with  a 
little  water  and  distil  down  one-half  into  80  c.c.  water.  Make 
the  distillate  up  to  150  c.c.  To  50  c.c.  of  this  add  Nessler's 
solution. 

If  the  color  is  not  too  strong,  the  estimation  may  be  made 
directly.  If  it  is  too  strong,  dilute  the  remainder,  test,  etc. 


TO    DETERMINE    NH3    BY    TITRATION. 

Use  1  litre  evaporated  to  small  bulk ;  treat  in  same  way  as 
above,  receiving  the  distillate  in  standard  acid  instead  of 
water.  Soda  may  be  purified  from  nitrates  by  dissolving 
aluminum  in  cold  solution,  and  boiling. 


4:20  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


WITHOUT    DISTILLATION. 

Prepare  soda  by  dissolving  100  grams  solid  soda,  diluting  to 
1  litre ;  dissolve  a  very  little  Al  in  it,  to  decompose  nitrates. 

1st.  Then  to  200  c.  c.  of  this  add  200  c.  c.  of  the  sample  of 
water  and  add  a  little  more  Al.  This  contains  original  ammo- 
nia and  that  from  nitrates. 

2d.  Take  200  c.c.  of  the  soda  ley,  dissolve  in  it  a  little  Al  as 
before,  then  add  200  c.c.  water,  and  allow  to  subside.  This 
will  have  the  nitrates  unreduced.  Decant,  and  determine 
NH3  by  Nessler's  solution. 

Test  in  both  1st  and  2d.     Difference  =  nitrates. 

E".B. — To  both  samples  of  water,  before  mixing  with  soda 
ley,  add  a  little  CaCl2  to  get  an  appreciable  precipitate. 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE  "CROTON   WATER." 

(Calculated  for  100,000  parts  water.) 

CaH2C2O6  (Calcic  Bicarbonate) 4.53 

MgH2C2O6  (Maguesic  Bicarbonate) 3.25 

Si02 1.05 

Fe2O3 Trace. 

Ala03 Trace. 

CaS04 0.26 

Na2S04 044 

K2S04 0.30 

NaCl 0.68 

Organic  Matter 1.13 

Total. .  11.64 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


421 


PURITY    OF    CITY    WATERS.* 

Impurities  contained  in  one  wine  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches  expressed  in 

grains. 


CITY. 

SOURCE. 

INORGANIC 
MATTER. 

ORGANIC 

AND 

VOLATILE 
MATTER. 

TOTAL 
SOLIDS. 

New  York 

Croton    1869  

411 

067 

478 

Well  8th  Ave     .  . 

3895 

459 

4354 

Brooklyn   

Ridgewood,  1869  

3.37 

0.59 

3.92 

Jersey  City       . 

458 

286 

744 

Trenton  

2.93 

055 

348 

Philadelphia 

Schuylkill  River  

230 

120 

350 

Boston 

Cochituate  Lake  

240 

0.71 

311 

Albany 

8.47 

2.31 

1078 

Troy 

Hydrant  .    . 

609 

134 

743 

Schenectady 

Well    State  St  

4688 

2.33 

49.21 

Utica  

Hydrant  

5.50 

0.96 

6.46 

Syracuse  

New  Reservoir  

12.13 

1.80 

13.93 

Rochester 

Genesee  River  

1202 

123 

1325 

Cleveland  

Lake  Erie  

474 

1.53 

627 

Chicago  

Lake  Michigan  

5.62 

1.06 

6.68 

Dublin 

Lough  Valley      .  . 

1  77 

134 

311 

London     

Thames  River  

15.55 

083 

1638 

tt 
Paris 

Well,  Leadenhall  St.  .  . 
River  Seine  

90.38 

7.83 

9.59 
100 

99.97 

883 

Amsterdam  

River  Vecht  

14.45 

2.13 

1658 

Well  .                     

6455 

438 

6893 

*  Taken  from  Lee.  on  Mineralogy  by  T.  Egleston,  E.  M. 

COAL    ANALYSIS. 

In  the  ordinary  analysis  there  is  determined  moisture ; 
volatile  and  combustible  matter;  fixed  carbon  (coke),  and 
sulphur. 

(a.)  Determination  of  moisture.*  Pulverize  the  coal  finely ; 
heat  one  or  two  grains  in  a  covered  platinum  or  porcelain 
crucible,  fifteen  minutes  in  an  air-bath  at  212°  to  240°  F. 
Cool  and  weigh,  repeat  until  weight  is  constant  or  begins  to 
rise.  Loss  =  MOISTURE. 

(b.)  Determination    of  volatile    and    combustible   matter. 


*  See  "  Notes  on  Assaying,"  p.  95,  by  Ricketts,  Ph.D. 


422  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

Heat  the  same  crucible,  with  contents,  to  bright  redness,  over 
a  Bunsen  burner  or  alcohol  lamp,  exactly  three  and  one-half 
minutes,  and  then  three  and  one-half  minutes  over  a  blast- 
lamp.  Cool  and  weigh.  Loss  =  volatile  and  combustible 
matter.  This  includes  one-half  of  sulphur  of  any  sulphide  of 
iron  contained  in  the  coal. 

(<?.)  Fixed  carbon.  Heat  over  the  burner  until  the  ash  is 
white  and  constant  weight.  Loss  =  fixed  carbon  and  one-half 
the  sulphur  from  the  sulphide  of  iron. 

(d.)  The  sulphur  may  be  determined  as  follows  :  Weigh  out 
one  to  two  grams  of  the  finely  pulverized  coal  and  oxidize 
with  nitric  acid  and  potassic  chlorate  in  a  flask  until  action 
ceases  ;  then  filter  and  wash.  If  the  residue  contain  sulphur, 
dry  and  weigh  it  ;  then  ignite  and  weigh.  The  difference  will 
be  the  sulphur  unoxidized  ;  add  to  this  a  little  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  then  baric  chloride  in  slight  excess  ;  heat  for  a  few 
moments  and  allow  the  particles  to  settle.  Four  off  the 
liquid  through  a  filter  and  wash  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid, 
then  with  water.  Dry  and  ignite  the  residue  in  a  porcelain 
crucible  ;  multiply  the  weight  of  the  precipitate  less  that  of 
the  filter-ash  by  T{|  ^  ;  the  product  equals  the  sulphur  in  the 
sample  taken. 

The  following  analyses  are  of  different  semi-bituminous 
coals  (by  Pierre  de  Peyster  Eicketts)  : 

Moisture  ...........................  3.310  ............  0.965 

Volatile  Combustible  Matter  .........  27.300  ............  30.111 

Fixed  Carbon  .......................  61.965  ............  61.033 

Ash  ................................  7.425  ............  7.829 

Sulphur  ............................  3.863  ............  1.347 


27.300.  minus  -^p  and  30.111  minus  -L^"-  gives  the  cor- 
rect amount  of  volatile  matter.  61.965  minus  -Mp  and 
61.033  minus  -^V"1?  the  correct  amount  of  fixed  carbon. 
Phosphorus  not  determined. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  423 


CLAY  ANALYSIS. 

I.  May  contain  A1203,  4Si02  +  6H20,  with  variable  quan- 
tities of  K20,  MgO,  FeO,  MnO,  feldspar,  sand,  etc. 

Dry  a  quantity  of  clay  at  100°  C.,  and  weigh ;  ignite  and 
weigh  again.  Loss  =  H20.  Treat  then  with  H2S04  (concen- 
trated) ;  heat ;  evaporate  off  excess  of  acid ;  dissolve  in  con- 
centrated HC1,  and  filter  off  the  Si02  (weigh).  If  the  clay 
contain  an  admixture  of  sand  or  feldspar,  the  silica  is  dissolved 
in  a  boiling  concentrated  solution  of  sodic  carbonate,  which 
leaves  the  sand  and  feldspar  undissolved. 

The  hydrochloric  acid  solution  is  considerably  diluted,  and 
gradually  neutralized  with  sodic  carbonate.  Precipitate  out 
ferric  and  aluminic  oxide,  then  manganous,  calcic,  and  mag- 
nesic  oxides  remain  in  the  solution  as  dicarbonates. 

The  Fe203  and  A1203  are  then  separated,  as  also  the  man- 
ganous, calcic,  and  magnesic  oxides. 

II.  The  clay  is  fused  with  three  times  its  weight  of  potassic 
and  sodic  carbonate,  the  fused  mass  dissolved  in  dilute  HC1, 
the  solution  evaporated  to  olryness,  the  residue  dissolved  in 
water  containing  HCl,  and  the  solution  filtered  off.     The  sep- 
aration of  the  other  bases  contained  in  the  solution  is  then 
effected  as  in  I. 

III.  For  the  determination  of  the  alkali  a  separate  portion 
of  the  clay  is  decomposed  by  fusion  with  baric  hydrate  or  car- 
bonate ;  the  baric  oxide  and  the  other  bases  are  precipitated 
from  the  solution  by  a  mixture  of  ammonic  hydrate  and  car- 
bonate ;  after  gently  heating,  the  solution  is  filtered  off,  the 
solution  evaporated,  and  the  residue  ignited,  when  potassic  and 
sodic  chloride  are  left,  which  may  be  separated  if  required. — 
(From  Wdhler's  Mineral  Analysis.) 


424  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

ANALYSIS   OF  CLAYS. 

The  hard,  dark  clay  used  for  the  substance  of  the  Mount  Savage  fire-brick. 
(JOHN  M.  ORDWAY.) 

Silica 50.457 

Alumina 35.904 

Protoxide  of  Iron 1.504 

Oxide  of  Manganese Trace. 

Lime 0.133 

Magnesia 0.018 

Water  and  Organic  Matter 12.744 

Potash Inappreciable. 

100.760 

GUNPOWDER  ANALYSIS. 

I.  For  the  estimation  of  moisture,  5  or  6  grams  of  powder 
are  dried  over  H2S04,  or  in  the  air-bath  at  100°. 

II.  A  similar  quantity  of  powder  is  moistened  with  water, 
triturated   in  a  mortar,  rinsed  into  a  filter,  and  thoroughly 
washed.     The  solution  of  nitre  thus  obtained  is  evaporated  to 
dryness  in  a  small  weighed  porcelain  dish,  the  dry  residue 
heated  for  some  time  to  200°,  or  even  until  the  nitre  fuses, 
and  its  weight  determined. 

III.  In  order  to  determine  the  sulphur  5  grams  are  inti- 
mately mixed  with  5  grams  anhydrous  Na2C03,  5  grams  of 
nitre,  and  20  grams  of  decrepitated  NaCl,  and  the  mixture 
heated  to  redness  in  a  platinum  crucible.     When  cool,  the 
mass  is  dissolved  in  water,  the  solution  slightly  acidified  with 
HN03,  and  the  H2S04  precipitated  with  BaCl2. 

The  amount  of  carbon  may  be  inferred  by  difference.  In 
order  to  determine  its  quality,  and  to  ascertain  whether  it  has 
been  completely  or  incompletely  carbonized,  the  mixture  of 
sulphur  may  be  separated  with  carbon  disulphide,  which  dis- 
solves the  sulphur  and  leaves  the  carbon,  which  must  be  well 
washed  and  dried. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


425 


ANALYSIS  OF  GUNPOWDER. 


GUNPOWDERS. 

CHARCOAL. 

SULPHUR. 

NlTKE. 

AUTHORITY. 

Swedish  war  powder  .... 

9.0 

160 

750 

Meyer 

Hessian  artillery  powder  

10.7 

15.1 

74.2 

'  '        musket        " 

107 

15  6 

737 

<  I 

French  sportinff        "         

135 

96 

76.9 

Prechtl 

English       "               "       
Russian  powder  ... 

13.7 

177 

10.1 
117 

76.2 
706 

Ure. 
Meyer 

Chinese        "       

231 

15.4 

61.5 

Prechtl 

SCHEME  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  GLASS.* 

Two  analyses  are  made,  one  by  fusion  with  an  alkaline 
carbonate,  for  the  determination  of  silicic  acid ;  the  other  by 
decomposing  the  glass  with  hydrofluoric  acid,  in  order  to  esti- 
mate the  alkali. 

I.  The  very  finely-powdered  glass  is  fused  with  three  times 
its  weight  of  potassic  and  sodic  carbonate ;  the  mass  is  then 
softened  with  water,  dissolved  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid, 
evaporated  to  dryness,  redissolved  in  water,  acidulated  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  silica  filtered  off  and  washed. 

From  the  solution,  the  small  accidental  impurities  of  ferric, 
manganons,  and  aluminic  oxides  which  are  usually  contained 
even  in  white  glass,  are  precipitated  by  ammonic  hydrate,  after 
the  solution  has  been  mixed  with  some  chlorine  water  to  per- 
oxidize  the  manganous  oxide. 

The  lime  is  afterwards  precipitated  by  oxalic  acid,  and  the 
solution  filtered  from  the  calcic  oxalate  is  tested  for  magnesia, 
which  may,  moreover,  have  been  precipitated  with  the  alu- 
minic oxide. 

If  the  glass  contain  plumbic  oxide,  that  metal  is  precipitated 
by  sulphydric  acid  from  the  solution  filtered  from  the  silicic 
acid. 


*  Mineral  Analysis,  Wohler,  p.  209. 


426 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


II.  For  the  determination  of  the  alkalies,  a  second  quantity 
of  very  finely-powdered  glass  is  decomposed  by  hydrofluoric 
acid,  or  by  ignition  with  baric  carbonate. 

In  the  last  case  after  fusion  the  mass  is  dissolved  in  water, 
evaporated  to  dryness  with  a  little  hydrochloric  acid,  then  dis- 
solved again  in  water  and  the  insoluble  silica  filtered  off,  when 
a  solution  will  be  obtained  from  which  may  be  determined  the 
alkalies,  as  also  the  other  bases  if  necessary. 

The  following  table  contains  the  analysis  of  different  speci- 
mens of  glass : 

ANALYSIS   OF  GLASS. 

Pale-green  Glass  used  for  Medical  Bottles  and  Chemical  Apparatus* 


CONSTITUENTS. 

EOT 

FLE   Q] 

^ASS. 

MEDI 

CAL-BC 

TTLE   ( 

iLASS. 

K2O                         1 

(3.2 

5.48 

6.1 

10.6 

10.5 

8.0 

Na2O.                   i 

3.1 

3.2 

1- 

3.0 

16.4 

BaO 

0.9 









CaO  

22.3 

20.7 

18.0 

29.22 

28.1 

10.0 

16.2 

13.0 

15.6 

MgO 

0.6 

7.0 

0.6 

2.2 

MnO 

1.2 

0.4 

0.3 

1.2 

Pe2O3 

4.0 

3.8 

4.4 

5.74 

6.2 

1.5 

2.5 

1.6 

0.7 

AloO, 

8.0 

10.4 

6.8 

6.01 

14.0 

3.0 

4.5 

3.6 

2.4 

SiOa 

60.0 

60.4 

59.6 

53.55 

456 

71.6 

62.5 

69.6 

62.0 

P2O5  

0.4 

99.0 

100.0 

99.4 

100.00 

100.00 

97.0 

97.4 

99.4 

99.3 

The  last  four  analyses  are  by  Berthier. 


ANALYSIS   OF  WINDOW  GLASS. 


CONSTITUENTS. 

a 

b 

C 

d 

e 

/ 

9 

Na.,0                          

1522 

11  30 

1288 

17  70 

137 

10  1 

11  1 

CaO 

13  31 

17  25 

16  17 

9  65 

7  8 

14  3 

12  5 

ALO3 

1  82 

220 

240 

4  00 

10  0 

76 

74 

SiO2 

69  65 

69  25 

68  55 

68  65 

68  5 

68  0 

69  0 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

a  tof  is  French ;  g,  English ;  f  and  <?,  the  hardest  and  most 
infusible ;  5,  the  next ;  d,  the  softest  and  most  easily  fused  of 


*  Watt's  Die.  Chem.,  Article  Glass. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


the  whole.  In  France,  a  mixture  is  used  of  100  parts  of  quartz- 
sand  with  between  30  and  40  parts  of  dry  sodic  carbonate  (or 
as  much  sulphate  with  charcoal)  and  30  to  40  parts  of  calcic 
carbonate  (Dumas).  Window  -glass  may  be  approximately 
represented  by  the  formula  Na20.2Si02  +  Ca0.2Si02. 

CHLORIMETRY. 

Chlorimetry  has  for  its  object  the  determination  of  the 
available  chlorine  in  the  "bleaching  powder"  of  commerce. 
Bleaching  powder  is  called  "  chloride  of  lime  ;  "  it  is  a  mix- 
ture of  calcic  hypochlorite,  calcic  chloride,  and  calcic  hydrate. 

The  following  method  of  chlorirnetry*  is  based  upon  the 
conversion  of  arsenious  acid  into  arsenic  acid;  the  conversion 
is  effected  in  an  alkaline  solution.  Potassic  iodide  starch- 
paper  is  employed  to  ascertain  the  exact  point  when  the  re- 
action is  completed. 

(a.)    PREPARATION  OF  POTASSIC  IODIDE  STARCH-PAPER. 

(Fresenius,  §  212.) 

Stir  3  grams  of  potato  starch  in  250  c.c.  of  cold  water,  boil 
with  stirring,  add  a  solution  of  1  gram  potassic  iodide  and 
1  gram  crystallized  sodic  carbonate,  and  dilute  to  500  c.c. 
Moisten  strips  of  Swedish  paper  with  this  fluid,  and  dry.  Keep. 
in  a  closed  bottle. 

(&.)   PREPARATION  OF  SOLUTION  OF  ARSENIOUS  ACID. 


Dissolve  4.436  grams  of  pure  arsenious  acid  and  13 
pure  crystallized  sodic  carbonate  in  600-700  c.  c.  of  water, 
with  the  aid  of  heat  ;  let  the  solution  cool,  and  then  dilute  to 
one  litre.  Each  c.c.  of  this  solution  contains  0.004436  grams 
arsenious  acid,  which  corresponds  to  1  c.c.  chlorine  gas  of  0° 
and  760  m.m.  atmospheric  pressure. 

*  By  A.  Penot,  Dingler's  Polytech.  Jour.,  127,  134. 


428  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

PREPARATION  OF  SOLUTION  OF  "CHLORIDE  OF  LIME." 

Weigh  10  grams  of  "chloride  of  lime,"  triturate  finely  with 
a  little  water,  add  gradually  more  water,  pour  the  liquid  into 
a  litre  flask,  triturate  the  residue  again  with  water,  and  rinse 
the  contents  of  the  mortar  carefully  into  the  flask ;  fill  the 
latter  to  the  mark,  shake  the  milky  fluid  and  examine  it  at 
once.  1  c.c.  of  this  solution  =  0.01  gram  chloride  of  lime. 

(c.)    THE    PROCESS. 

Put  50  c.c.  of  solution  of  "  chloride  of  lime"  in  a  beaker, 
and  from  a  50  c.c.  burette  add  slowly,  and  at  last  drop  by 
drop,  the  solution  of  arsenious  acid,  with  constant  stirring, 
until  a  drop  of  the  mixture  produces  no  longer  a  blue-colored 
spot  on  the  iodized  paper.  The  number  of  £  c.c.  used  indi- 
cates directly  the  number  of  chlorometric  degrees.  Suppose 
40  c.c.  of  arsenious  acid  solution  were  used,  the  quantity  of 
u  chloride  of  lime"  used  in  the  experiment  contains  40  c.c.  of 
chlorine  gas.  Now  the  50  c.c.  of  solution  employed  corresponds 
to  (1  c.c.  =  0.01  gram)  0.5  gram  of  chloride  of  lime;  therefore 
0.5  gram  of  chloride  of  lime  contains  40  c.c.  chlorine  gas ; 
therefore  1000  grams  contain  8000  c.c.  =  80  litres  of  chlorine 
gas. 


rpnu 


it    Malpis, 

J 


THE    ELEMENTARY    OR    ULTIMATE 

ANALYSIS    OF   ORGANIC    COMPOUNDS. 

(From  FOWNES'  CHEMISTRY,  London,  1872.) 

Organic  compounds  contain,  for  the  most  part,  only  a  small 
number  of  elements.  Many  consist  only  of  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen. A  very  large  number,  including  most  of  those  which 
occur  ready -formed  in  the  bodies  of  plants  and  animals,  consist 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen;  others  consist  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  nitrogen.  Others,  again,  including  most  of  the 
proximate  principles  of  the  animal  organism,  consist  of  four 
elements,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  Some 
contain  sulphur,  phosphorus,  chlorine,  and  metallic  elements ; 
in  fact,  artificially  prepared  carbon  compounds  may  contain 
any  elements  whatever.  Moreover,  even  those  which  contain 
only  a  small  number  of  elements  often  exhibit  great  complexity 
of  structure,  in  consequence  of  the  accumulation  of  a  large 
number  of  carbon-atoms  in  the  same  molecule. 

DETERMINATION    OF    CARBON    AND    HYDROGEN. 

The  quantities  of  these  elements  are  determined  by  heating 
a  known  weight  of  the  body  to  be  analyzed  in  contact  with 
some  easily-reducible  metallic  oxide,  black  oxide  of  copper 
being  the  substance  generally  used.  The  organic  body  then 
undergoes  complete  combustion  at  the  expense  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  cupric  oxide,  the  carbon  being  completely  converted 
into  carbonic  oxide,  and  the  hydrogen  into  water.  These 
products  are  collected  and  their  weights  determined,  and  from 


432  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

the  data  thus  obtained  the  quantities  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
present  in  the  organic  substance  are  calculated.  When  nothing 
but  carbon  and  hydrogen,  or  those  bodies  together  with  oxy- 
gen, is  present,  one  experiment  suffices;  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  are  determined  directly,  and  the  oxygen  by  differ- 
ence. 

The  substance  to  be  analyzed,  if  solid,  must  be  carefully 
freed  from  moisture.     If  it  will  bear  the  application  of  a  mod- 
erate  heat,  this  desiccation  is  very  easily 
FIG.  1.  accomplished  by  a  water  or  steam  bath ;  in 

other  cases,  exposure  at  common  tempera- 
tures to  the  absorbent  powers  of  a  large 
surface  of  oil  of  vitriol  in  the  vacuum  of  an 
air-pump  must  be  substituted. 

The  dried  powder  is  weighed  in  a  narrow 
open  tube,  about  2J  or  3  inches  long ;  the 
tube  and  substance  are  weighed  together, 
and,  when  the  latter  has  been  removed,  the 
tube  with  any  little  adherent  matter  is  re-weighed.  This 
weight,  subtracted  from  the  former,  gives  the  weight  of  the 
substance  employed  in  the  experiment.  As  only  half  a  gram 
(5  or  6  grains)  is  used,  the  weighings  should  not  involve  a 
greater  error  than  a  milligram  (or  ^  J^-  part  of  a  grain). 

The  cupric  oxide  is  best  made  from  the  nitrate  by  complete 
ignition  in  an  earthen  crucible ;  it  is  reduced  to  a  powder  and 
reheated  just  before  use,  to  expel  hydroscopic  moisture,  which 
it  absorbs,  even  while  warm,  with  avidity.  The  combustion 
is  performed  in  a  tube  of  hard,  white  Bohemian  glass,  having 
a  diameter  of  0.4  or  0.5  inch,  and  varying  in  length  from  14 
to  18  inches;  this  kind  of  glass  bears  a  moderate  red  heat 
without  becoming  soft  enough  to  lose  its  shape.  One  end  of 
the  tube  is  drawn  out  to  a  point,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  and 
closed;  the  other  is  simply  heated,  to  fuse  and  soften  the 
sharp  edges  of  the  glass. 

The  tube  is  now  two-thirds  filled  with  the  yet  warm  cupric 
oxide,  nearly  the  whole  of  which  is  transferred  to  a  small  por- 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  433 

FIG.  2. 


celain  or  Wedgwood  mortar,  and  very  intimately  mixed  with 
the  organic  substance.  The  mixture  is  then  transferred  to  the 
tube,  and  the  mortar  rinsed  with  a  little  fresh  and  hot  oxide, 
which  is  added  to  the  rest ;  the  tube  is  lastly  filled  to  within 
an  inch  of  the  open  end  with  oxide  from  the  crucible.  A  few 
gentle  taps  on  the  table  suffice  to  shake  together  the  contents, 
so  as  to  leave  a  free  passage  for  the  evolved  gases  from  end  to 
end.  The  arrangement  of  the  mixture  and  the  oxide  in  the 
tube  is  represented  in  the  above  figure. 

The  tube  is  then  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  furnace  or  chauf- 
fer ;  this,  when  charcoal  is  the  fuel  employed,  is  constructed 
of  thin  sheet-iron,  and  is  furnished  with  a  series  of  supports  of 
equal  height,  which  serve  to  prevent  flexure  of  the  combustion- 
tube  when  softened  by  heat.  The  chauffer  is  placed  upon  flat 
bricks  or  a  piece  of  stone,  so  that  but  little  air  can  enter  the 
grating,  unless  the  whole  be  purposely  raised.  A  slight  incli- 

FIG.  3. 


nation  is  also  given  towards  the  extremity  occupied  by  the 
mouth  of  the  combustion-tube,  which  passes  through  a  hole 
provided  for  the  purpose. 

To  collect  the  water  produced  in  the  experiment,  a  small 
light  tube  of  the  form  represented  in  Fig.  4,  or  a  U-tube,  as  in 
Fig.  7,  filled  with  fragments  of  spongy  calcic  chloride,  is 


434  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

attached  by  a  perforated  cork,  thoroughly  dried,  to  the  open 
extremity  of  the  combustion-tube.  The  carbonic  oxide  is  ab- 
sorbed by  a  solution  of  pot assic  hydrate,  of  specific  gravity  1.27, 
which  is  contained  in  a  small  glass  apparatus  on  the  principle 
of  a  Woulfe's  bottle,  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  connection 

FIG.  4.  FIG.  5. 


between  the  latter  and  the  calcic-chloride  tube  is  completed 
by  a  little  tube  of  caoutchouc,  secured  with  silk  cord.  The 
whole  is  shown  in  Fig.  6,  as  arranged  for  use.  Both  the 
calcic-chloride  tube  and  the  potash  apparatus  are  weighed 
with  the  utmost  care  before  the  experiment. 


FIG.  6. 


DBA  WING  OF  THE  WHOLE  ARRANGEMENT. 

The  tightness  of  the  junctions  may  be  ascertained  by  slightly 
rarefying  the  included  air  by  sucking  a  few  bubbles  from  the 
interior  through  the  liquid,  using  the  dry  lips,  or,  better,  a 
little  bent  tube  with  a  perforated  cork ;  if  the  difference  of 
level  in  the  liquid  in  the  two  limbs  of  the  potash-apparatus  be 
preserved  for  several  minutes,  the  joints  are  perfect.  Red-hot 
charcoal  is  now  placed  around  the  anterior  portion  of  the  com- 
bustion-tube, containing  the  pure  cupric  oxide ;  and  wrhen 
this  is  red-hot,  the  fire  is  slowly  extended  towards  the  farther 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


435 


extremity  by  shifting  the  movable  screen  represented  in  the 
drawing.  The  experiment  must  be  so  conducted,  that  a  uni- 
form stream  of  carbonic  oxide  shall  enter  the  potash-apparatus 
by  bubbles  which  may  be  easily  counted ;  when  no  nitrogen 
is  present,  these  bubbles  are,  towards  the  termination  of  the 
experiment,  almost  completely  absorbed  by  the  alkaline  liquid, 
the  little  residue  of  air  alone  escaping.  In  the  case  of  an 
azotized  body,  on  the  contrary,  bubbles  of  nitrogen  gas  pass 
through  the  potash-solution  during  the  whole  process. 

When  the  tube  has  been  completely  heated  from  end  to  end, 
and  no  more  gas  is  disengaged,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  absorp- 
tion begins  to  be  evident,  the  coals  are  removed  from  the 
farthest  extremity  of  the  combustion-tube,  and  the  point  of  the 
latter  broken  off.  A  little  air  is  drawn  through  the  whole 
apparatus,  by  which  the  remaining  carbonic  oxide  and  watery 
vapor  are  secured.  The  parts  are,  lastly,  detached,  and  the 
calcic-chloride  tube  and  potash-apparatus  re- weighed. 


FIG.  7. 


The  mode  of  heating  the  combustion-tube  with  red-hot  char- 
coal is  the  original  process,  and  still  extensively  employed,  the 
construction  of  the  furnace  being  most  simple,  and  charcoal 
everywhere  accessible.  But  since  the  use  of  coal  gas  has  been 
universally  adopted  in  laboratories,  many  contrivances  have 
been  suggested,  by  means  of  which  this  convenient  fuel  may 


436  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

FIG.  8.  FIG, 


be  employed  also  in  organic  analysis.  An  apparatus  of  this 
kind  *  is  the  one  represented  in  Fig.  7,  in  which  the  combus- 
tion-tube is  heated  by  a  series  of  perforated  clay  burners. 
These  are  fixed  on  pipes  provided  with  stopcocks,  so  that  the 
gas  may  be  lighted  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  case. 
The  stopcocks  being  appropriately  adjusted,  the  gas  burns  on 
the  surface  of  the  burners  with  a  smokeless  blue  flame,  which 
renders  them  in  a  short  time  incandescent.  The  construction 
of  this  furnace  is  readily  intelligible  by  a  glance  at  Figs.  8 
and  9,  which  exhibit  the  different  parts  of  the  apparatus  in 
section,  Fig.  8  representing  furnace  with  five  rows,  and  Fig.'  9 
a  smaller  furnace  with  three  rows  of  clay  burners. 

The  following  account  of  a  real  experiment  will  serve  to 
illustrate  the  calculation  of  the  result  obtained  in  the  combus- 
tion of  crystallized  sugar : 

Quantity  of  sugar  employed 4.750  grains. 

Potash-apparatus  weighed  after  experiment. .   781.13        " 

before        "          ..  77382 
Carbon  dioxide 7.31 

Calcium-chloride  tube  after  experiment 226.05        " 

"     before        "         223.30 

Water..  2.75 


*  Hoffmann,  Journal  of  Chemical  Society,  vol.  xi,  p.  30. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  437 

7.31  gr.  carbon  dioxide  =  1.994  gr.  carbon  ;  2.75  gr.  water  =  0.3056  gr. 
hydrogen  ;  or,  in  100  parts  sugar,* 

Carbon 41.98 

Hydrogen 6.43 

Oxygen  by  difference 51.59 

100.00 

When  the  organic  substance  cannot  be  mixed  with  cupric 
oxide  in  the  manner  described,  the  process  must  be  slightly 
modified.  If,  for  example,  a  volatile  liquid  is  to  be  examined, 
it  is  inclosed  in  a  little  glass  bulb  with  a  narrow  stem,  which  is 
weighed  before  and  after  the  introduction  of  the  liquid,  the 
point  being  hermetically  sealed.  The  combustion-tube  must 
have,  in  this  case,  a  much  greater  length ;  and  as  the  cupric 
oxide  cannot  be  introduced  hot,  it  must  be  ignited  and  cooled 
out  of  contact  with  the  air,  to  prevent  absorption  of  watery 
vapor.  This  is  most  conveniently  effected  by  transferring  it, 
in  a  heated  state,  to  a  large  platinum  crucible  to  which  a 
closely-fitting  cover  can  be  adapted.  When  quite  cold,  the 
cover  is  removed,  and  instantly  replaced  by  a  dry  glass  funnel, 
by  the  assistance  of  which  the  oxide  may  be  directly  poured 
into  the  combustion-tube  with  merely  momentary  exposure  to 
the  air.  A  little  oxide  is  put  in,  then  the  bulb,  with  its  stem 
broken  at  a,  a  file-scratch  having  been  previously  made ;  and 
lastly,  the  tube  is  filled  with  the  cold  and  dry  cupric  oxide. 

It  is  arranged  in  the  chauffer,  the  calcic-chloride  tube  and 
potash-apparatus  adjusted,  and  then  some  six  or  eight  inches 
of  oxide  having  been  heated  to  redness,  the  liquid  in  the  bulb 
is,  by  the  approximation  of  a  hot  coal,  expelled,  and  slowly 
converted  into  vapor,  which,  in  passing  over  the  hot  oxide,  is 
completely  burned.  The  experiment  is  then  terminated  in 
the  usual  manner. 

'*  The  theoretical  composition  of  sugar.  Cl2H22Oii>  reckoned  to  100 
parts,  gives  : 

Carbon 42.11 

Hydrogen 6,43 

Oxygen  51.46 

100.00 


438  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Fra.  10. 


Fusible  fatty  and  wavy  substances,  and  volatile  concrete 
bodies,  as  camphor,  are  placed  in  little  boats  of  glass  or  plat- 
inum. 

Cupric  oxide,  which  has  been  used,  may  be  easily  restored 
by  moistening  with  nitric  acid  and  igniting  to  redness ;  it  be- 
comes, in  fact,  rather  improved  than  otherwise,  as,  after  fre- 
quent employment,  its  density  is  increased,  and  its  troublesome 
hygroscopic  powers  diminished. 

For  substances  which  are  very  difficult  of  combustion,  from 
the  large  proportion  of  carbon  which  they  contain,  and  for  com- 
pounds into  which  chlorine  enters  as  a  constituent,  fused  and 
powdered  lead  chromate  is  very  advantageously  substituted  for 
the  cupric  oxide.  Plumbic  chromate  freely  gives  up  oxygen  to 
combustiole  matters,  and  even  evolves,  when  strongly  heated, 
a  little  of  that  gas,  which  thus  ensures  the  perfect  combustion 
of  the  organic  body. 

ANALYSIS   OF  AZOTIZED    SUBSTANCES. 

The  presence  of  nitrogen  in  an  organic  compound  is  easily 
ascertained  by  heating  a  small  portion  with  solid  potassic 
hydrate  in  a  test-tube ;  the  nitrogen,  if  present,  is  converted 
into  ammonia,  which  may  be  recognized  by  its  odor  and  alka- 
line reaction. 

In  determining  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  such  bodies,  by 
combustion  with  cupric  oxide,  as  above  described,  a  longer 
tube  than  usual  must  be  employed,  and  four  or  five  inches  of 
its  anterior  position  filled  with  copper  turnings  rendered  per- 
fectly metallic  by  ignition  in  hydrogen. 


THE     CHEMISTS'     MANUAL.  439 

This  serves  to  decompose  any  nitrogen  oxides  formed  in  the 
process  of  combustion,  which,  if  suffered  to  pass  off  unde- 
composed,  would  be  absorbed  by  the  potash,  and  vitiate  the 
determination  of  the  carbon. 

The  nitrogen  may  be  estimated  either  by  converting  it  into 
ammonia,  by  igniting  the  substance  with  an  alkaline  hydrate, 
as  above  mentioned,  or  by  evolving  it  in  the  free  state  and 
measuring  its  volume. 

1.  By  conversion  into  ammonia:  Will  and  Yarrentrapp's 
method. — An  intimate  mixture  is  made  of  1  part  sodic  oxide 
and  2  or  3  parts  quicklime,  by  slaking  lime  of  good  qual- 
ity with  the  proper  proportion  of  strong  sodic  oxide,  drying 
the  mixture  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  then  heating  it  to  redness 
in  an  earthen  crucible.  The  ignited  mass  is  rubbed  to  powder 
in  a  warm  mortar,  and  carefully  preserved  from  the  air.  The 
lime  is  useful  in  many  ways ;  it  diminishes  the  tendency  of 
the  alkali  to  deliquesce,  facilitates  mixture  with  the  organic 
substance,  and  prevents  fusion  and  liquefaction.  A  proper 
quantity  of  the  substance  to  be  analyzed,  namely,  from  5  to  10 
grains,  is  dried  and  accurately  weighed  out ;  this  is  mixed  in  a 
warm  porcelain  mortar  with  enough  of  the  soda-lime  to  fill  two- 
thirds  of  an  ordinary  combustion-tube,  the  mortar  being  rinsed 
with  a  little  more  of  the  alkaline  mixture,  arid,  lastly,  with 
a  small  quantity  of  powdered  glass,  which  completely  re- 
moves everything  adherent  to  its  surface;  the  tube  is  then 
filled  to  within  an  inch  of  the  open  end  with  the  lime-mixture, 
and  arranged  in  a  chauffer  in  the  usual  manner.  The  am- 
monia is  collected  in  a  little  apparatus  of  three  bulbs  (Fig.  11), 
containing  moderately  strong  hydrochloric  acid,  attached  by  a 
cork  to  the  combustion-tube.  Matters  being  thus  adjusted,  fire 
is  applied  to  the  tube  commencing  with  the  anterior  extremity. 
When  it  is  ignited  throughout  its  whole  length,  and  when 
no  gas  issues  from  the  apparatus,  the  point  of  the  tube  is 
broken,  and  a  little  air  drawn  through  the  whole.  The  acid 
liquid  is  then  emptied  into  a  capsule,  the  bulbs  rinsed  into 
the  same,  first  with  a  little  alcohol,  and  then  repeatedly  with 


440  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

FIG.  11. 


distilled  water ;  an  excess  of  pure  platinic  chloride  is  added ; 
and  the  whole  evaporated  to  dry  ness  in  a  water-bath.  The 
dry  mass,  when  cold,  is  treated  with  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
ether,  which  dissolves  out  the  superfluous  platinic  chloride, 
but  leaves  untouched  the  yellow  crystalline  ammonic  chloro- 
platinate.  The  latter  is  collected  upon  a  small  weighed 
filter,  washed  with  the  same  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether, 
dried  at  100°,  and  weighed ;  100  parts  correspond  to  6.272 
parts  of  nitrogen.  Or,  the  salt  with  its  filter  may  be  very 
carefully  ignited,  the  filter  burned  in  a  platinum  crucible,  and 
the  nitrogen  reckoned  from  the  weight  of  the  spongy  metal, 
100  parts  of  that  substance  corresponding  to  14.18  parts  nitro- 
gen. The  former  plan  is  to  be  preferred  in  most  cases. 

Bodies  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  as  urea,  must  be  mixed  with 
about  an  equal  quantity  of  pure  sugar,  to  furnish  inconden- 
sable gas,  and  then  diminish  the  violence  of  the  absorption 
which  otherwise  occurs;  and  the  same  precaution  must  be 
taken,  for  a  different  reason,  with  those  which  contain  little  or 
no  hydrogen. 

A  modification  of  this  process  has  been  suggested  by  Peli- 
got,  which  is  very  convenient  if  a  large  number  of  nitrogen- 
determination  is  to  be  made.  By  this  plan,  the  ammonia, 
instead  of  being  received  in  hydrochloric  acid,  is  conducted 
into  a  known  volume  (one-half  to  one  cubic  inch)  of  a  standard 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid  contained  in  the  ordinary  nitrogen- 
bulbs.  After  the  combustion  is  finished,  the  acid  containing 
the  ammonia  is  poured  out  into  a  beaker,  colored  with  a  drop 
of  tincture  of  litmus,  and  then  neutralized  with  a  standard 
solution  of  soda  in  water,  or  of  lime  in  sugar-water,  the  point 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  441 

of  neutralization  becoming  perceptible  by  the  sudden  appear- 
ance of  a  blue  tint.  The  lime  solution  is  conveniently  poured 
out  from  an  alkalimeter.  The  volume  of  lime-solution  neces- 
sary to  neutralize  the  same  amount  of  acid  that  is  used  for 
condensing  the  ammonia,  having  been  ascertained  by  a  pre- 
liminary experiment,  it  is  evident  that  the  difference  of  the 
quantities  used  in  the  two  experiments  gives  the  ammonia 
collected  in  the  acid  during  the  combustion.  The  amount 
of  nitrogen  may  thus  be  calculated. 

If,  for  instance,  an  acid  be  prepared  containing  20  grams 
of  pure  hydrogen  sulphate  (H2S04)  in  1000  grain-measures, 
then  200  grain-measures  of  this  acid,  the  quantity  introduced 
into  the  bulbs,  will  correspond  to  1.38  grains  of  ammonia,  or 
1.14  grains  of  nitrogen.  The  alkaline  solution  is  so  graduated 
that  1000  grain-measures  will  exactly  neutralize  the  200  grain- 
measures  of  the  standard  acid.  If  we  now  find  that  the  acid, 
partly  saturated  with  the  ammonia  disengaged  during  the  com- 
bustion of  a  nitrogenous  substance,  requires  only  TOO  grain- 
measures  of  the  alkaline  solution,  it  is  evident  that  -^y^f--*1 
=  60  grain-measures  were  saturated  by  the  ammonia,  and  the 
quantity  of  nitrogen  is  obtained  by  the  proportion,  200  :  1.14 
—  60  :  a1,  wherefore  x  =  :L^f^SL  =  0.342  grains  of  nitrogen. 

2.  By  measure  as  free  nitrogen. — When  the  nitrogen  exists 
in  the  organic  substance  in  the  form  of  an  oxide,  as  in  nitro- 
benzine,  C6H5(N02),  ethyl  nitrate,  C2H5(NO)0,  etc.,  the  pre- 
ceding method  cannot  be  employed,  because  these  nitrogen 
oxides  are  not  completely  converted  into  ammonia  by  heating 
with  alkaline  hydrates :  it  fails  also  in  the  case  of  certain 
organic  bases.  In  such  cases  the  nitrogen  must  be  evolved  in 
the  free  state  by  heating  the  organic  body  with  cupric  oxide, 
and  its  volume  determined  by  collecting  it  over  mercury  in  a 
graduated  jar.  There  are  several  ways  of  effecting  this :  the 
one  most  frequently  employed  is  that  of  Dumas,  as  simplified 
by  Melseus : 

A  tube  of  Bohemian  glass,  28  inches  long,  is  securely  sealed 
at  one  end  ;  into  this  enough  dry  hydrosodic  carbonate  is  put 


442 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


to  occupy  6  inches.  A  little  pure  copper  oxide  is  next  intro- 
duced, and  afterwards  the  mixture  of  oxide  and  organic  sub- 
stance ;  the  weight  of  the  latter,  between  4.5  and  9  grains,  in 
a  dry  state,  having  been  correctly  determined.  The  remainder 
of  the  tube,  amounting  to  nearly  one-half  of  its  length,  is 
then  filled  up  with  pure  cupric  oxide  and  spongy  metal,  and 
a  round  cork,  perforated  by  a  piece  of  narrow  tube,  is  securely 

FIG.  12. 


adapted  to  its  mouth.  This  tube  is  connected  by  means  of  a 
caoutchouc  joint  with  a  bent  delivery-tube,  #,  and  the  com- 
bustion-tube is  arranged  in  the  furnace.  A  few  coals  are  now 
applied  to  the  farther  end  of  the  tube,  so  as  to  decompose  a 
portion  of  the  hydrosodic  carbonate;  the  remainder  tff  the 
carbonate,  as  well  as  of  the  other  part  of  the  tube,  being  pro- 
tected from  the  heat  by  a  screen,  n.  The  current  of  carbonic 
oxide  thus  produced  is  intended  to  expel  all  the  air  from  the 
apparatus.  In  order  to  ascertain  that  this  object,  on  which 
the  success  of  the  whole  operation  depends,  is  accomplished, 
the  delivery-tube  is  depressed  under  the  level  of  a  mercurial 
trough,  and  the  gas  which  is  evolved,  collected  in  a  test-tube 
filled  with  concentrated  potash-solution.  If  the  gas  be  per- 
fectly absorbed,  or,  if  after  the  introduction  of  a  considerable 
quantity  only  a  minute  bubble  be  left,  the  air  may  be  con- 
sidered as  expelled.  The  next  step  is  to  fill  a  graduated  glass 
jar  two-thirds  with  mercury  and  one-third  with  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  potash,  and  to  invert  it  over  the  delivery-tube,  as 
represented  in  Fig.  12- 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  4=4:3 

This  done,  fire  is  applied  to  the  tube,  commencing  at  the 
front  end,  and  gradually  proceeding  to  the  closed  extremity, 
which  still  contains  some  undecomposed  hydrosodic  car- 
bonate. This,  when  the  fire  at  length  reaches  it,  yields  up 
carbonic  oxide,  which  chases  forward  the  nitrogen  lingering 
in  the  tube.  The  carbonic  oxide  generated  during  the  com- 
bustion is  wholly  absorbed  by  the  potash  in  the  jar,  and  nothing 
is  left  but  the  nitrogen.  When  the  operation  is  at  an  end, 
the  jar  with  its  contents  is  transferred  to  a  vessel  of  water, 
and  the  volume  of  the  nitrogen  read  off.  This  is  properly  cor- 
rected for  temperature,  pressure,  and  aqueous  vapor,  and  its 
weight  determined  by  calculation.  When  the  operation  has 
been  very  successful,  and  all  precautions  minutely  observed, 
the  result  still  leaves  an  error  in  excess,  amounting  to  0.3  or 
0.5  per  cent,  due  to  the  residual  air  of  the  apparatus,  or  that 
condensed  in  the  pores  of  the  cupric  oxide. 

A  modification  of  the  process,  by  which  this  error  is  con- 
siderably diminished,  has  been  devised  by  Dr.  Maxwell 
Simpson.* 

The  method  just  described  is  applicable  to  the  estimation 
of  nitrogen  in  the  oxides  and  oxygen-acids  of  nitrogen,  in 
metallic  nitrates  and  nitrites,  and,  in  fact,  to  the  analysis  of 
all  nitrogenous  bodies  whatever. 

ANALYSIS    OF    CHLORINATED    COMPOUNDS. 

The  case  of  a  volatile  liquid  containing  chlorine  is  of  very 
frequent  occurrence,  and  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  the 
general  plan  of  proceeding.  The  combustion  with  cupric 
oxide  must  be  very  carefully  conducted,  and  two  or  three 
inches  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  tube  kept  cool  enough 
to  prevent  volatilization  of  the  cupric  chloride  into  the  cal- 
cic-chloride tube.  Plumbic  chromate  is  much  better  for  the 
purpose. 

The  chlorine   is  correctly  determined   by  placing  a  small 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  vi,  299. 


444  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

weighed  bulb  of  liquid  in  a  combustion-tube,  which  is  after- 
wards filled  with  fragments  of  pure  quicklime.  The  lime  is 
brought  to  a  red  heat,  and  the  vapor  of  the  liquid  driven  over 
it,  when  the  chlorine  displaces  oxygen  from  the  lime,  and 
gives  rise  to  calcic  chloride.  When  cold,  the  contents  of 
the  tube  are  dissolved  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  the  liquid  is  fil- 
tered, and  the  chlorine  precipitated  by  silver  nitrate. 
Bromine  and  iodine  are  estimated  in  a  similar  manner. 

ANALYSIS   OF   ORGANIC   COMPOUNDS   CONTAINING 
SULPHUR. 

When  a  body  of  this  nature  is  burned  with  cupric  oxide,  a 
small  tube  containing  plumbic  oxide  may  be  interposed  between 
the  calcic-chloride  tube  and  the  potash  apparatus,  to  retain 
any  sulphurous  acid  that  may  be  formed.  It  is  better,  how- 
ever, to  use  plumbic  chromate  in  such  cases.  The  proportion  of 
sulphur  is  determined  by  oxidizing  a  known  weight  of  the 
substance  with  strong  nitric  acid,  or  by  fusion  in  a  silver  ves- 
sel with  ten  or  twelve  times  its  weight  of  pure  potassic 
hydrate  and  half  as  much  nitre.  The  sulphur  is  thus  con- 
verted into  sulphuric  acid,  the  quantity  of  which  can  be  deter- 
mined by  dissolving  the  fused  mass  in  water,  acidulating  with 
nitric  acid,  and  adding  a  barium  salt.  Phosphorus  is,  in  like 
manner,  oxidized  to  phosphoric  acid,  the  quantity  of  which  is 
determined  by  precipitation  as  ammonic-dimagnesic  phosphate, 
or  otherwise. 

EMPIRICAL  AND    MOLECULAR   FORMULA. 

A  chemical  formula  is  termed  empirical  when  it  merely 
gives  the  simplest  possible  expression  of  the  composition  of 
the  substance  to  which  it  refers.  A  molecular  formula,  on  the 
contrary,  expresses  the  absolute  number  of  atoms  of  each  of  its 
elements  supposed  to  be  contained  in  the  molecule,  as  well  as 
mere  numerical  relations  existing  between  them.  The  em- 
pirical formula  is  at  once  deduced  from  the  analysis  of  the  sub- 
stance, reckoned  to  100  parts. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  445 

The  case  of  sugar  already  cited,  may  be  taken  as  an  ex- 
ample. 

This  substance  gives  by  analysis: 

Carbon  .................  ...  .............     41,98 

Hydrogen  ..............................       6.43 

Oxygen  .........  .......................     51.59 

100.00 

If  each  of  these  quantities  be  divided  by  the  atomic  weight 
of  the  corresponding  element,  the  quotient  will  express  the 
relations  existing  between  the  numbers  of  atoms  of  the  three 
elements  ;  these  are  afterwards  reduced  to  their  simplest  ex- 
pression. 

This  is  the  only  part  of  the  calculation  attended  with  any  dif- 
ficulty. If  the  members  were  rigidly  correct,  it  would  only  be 
necessary  to  divide  each  by  the  greatest  divisor  common  to  the 
whole  ;  but  as  they  are  only  approximative,  something  is  of 
necessity  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  experimenter. 

In  the  case  of  sugar,  we  have 


or  350  atoms  carbon,  643  atoms  hydrogen,  and  342  atoms 
oxygen.  Now  it  is  evident,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  are  present  nearly  in  the  proportion  to  form  water, 
or  twice  as  many  atoms  of  the  former  as  of  the  latter.  Again, 
the  atoms  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  are  nearly  in  the  proportion 
of  12  :  22,  so  that  the  formula  C|2H22j  0,  ,  appears  likely  to 
be  correct.  It  is  now  easy  to  see  how  far  this  is  admissible, 
by  reckoning  it  back  to  100  parts,  comparing  the  results  with 
the  number  given  by  the  actual  analysis,  and  observing 
whether  the  difference  falls  fairly,  in  direction  and  amount, 
within  the  limits  of  error  of  what  may  be  termed  a  good  ex- 
periment, viz.  :  two  or  three  tenths  per  cent,  deficiency  in  the 
carbon,  and  not  more  than  one-tenth  or  two-tenths  per  cent. 
excess  in  the  hydrogen  : 


446  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Carbon 12  x  12  =  144 

Hydrogen 1  x  22  =  22 

Oxygen 10  x  11  =  176 

342 

342  :  144  =  100  :  42.11 
342  :  22  =  100  :  6.43 
342  :  176  =  100  :  51.46 

To  determine  the  molecular  formula,  several  considerations 
must  be  taken  into  account — namely,  the  combining  or  satu- 
rating power  of  the  compound;  if  it  is  acid  or  basic,  the  num- 
ber of  atoms  of  any  one  of  its  elements  (generally  hydrogen) 
which  may  be  replaced  by  other  elements ;  the  law  of  even 
numbers,  which  requires  that  the  sum  of  the  numbers  of  atoms 
of  all  the  perissad  elements  (hydrogen,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  etc.) 
contained  in  the  compound  shall  be  divisible  by  2 ;  and  the 
vapor-density  of  the  compound  (if  it  be  volatile  without  de- 
composition), which,  in  normally  constituted  compounds,  is 
always  half  the  molecular  weight. 

The  molecular  formula  may  either  coincide  with  the  em- 
pirical formula,  or  it  may  be  a  multiple  of  the  latter.  Thus, 
the  composition  of  acetic  acid  is  expressed  by  the  formula 
CH20,  which  exhibits  the  simplest  relations  of  the  three  ele- 
ments ;  but  if  we  want  to  express  the  quantities  of  these,  in 
atoms,  required  to  make  up  a  molecule  of  acetic  acid,  we  have 
to  adopt  the  formula  C2H402 ;  for  only  one-fourth  of  the 
hydrogen  in  this  acid  is  replaceable  by  metals  to  form  salts, 
C2H3K02,  for  example;  and  its  vapor-density,  compared  with 
hydrogen,  is  nearly  30,  wThich  is  half  the  weight  of  the  mole- 
cule, C2H402  =  2  .  12  +  4  .  1  +  2  .  16.  Again,  the  empirical 
formula  of  benzine  is  CH  ;  but  this  contains  an  uneven  num- 
ber of  hydrogen  atoms ;  moreover,  if  it  expressed  the  weight 
of  the  molecule  of  benzine,  the  vapor-density  of  that  com- 

12  +  1 
pound  should  be  — ~ —  =  6.5,  whereas  experiment  shows  that 

it  is  six  times  as  great,  or  equal  to  39 ;  hence  the  molecular 
formula  of  benzine  is  C6H6. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  447 

Organic  acids  and  salt-radicals  have  their  molecular  weights 
most  frequently  determined  by  an  analysis  of  their  lead  and 
silver  salts,  by  burning  these  latter  with  suitable  precautions 
in  a  thin  porcelain  capsule,  and  noting  the  weight  of  the 
lead  oxide  or  metallic  silver  left  behind.  If  the  lead  oxide  be 
mixed  with  globules  of  reduced  metal,  the  quantity  of  the 
latter  must  be  ascertained  by  dissolving  away  the  oxide  with 
acetic  acid.  Or  the  lead  salt  may  be  converted  into  sulphate, 
and  the  silver  compound  into  chloride,  and  both  metals  thus 
estimated.  An  organic  base,  on  the  contrary,  has  its  molec- 
ular weight  fixed  by  observation  of  the  quantity  of  a  mineral 
acid  or  organic  salt-radical,  required  to  form  with  it  in  com- 
pound having  the  characters  of  neutrality. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe  that  the  methods  just  de- 
scribed for  determining  the  empirical  and  molecular  formula 
of  an  organic  compound  from  the  results  of  its  analysis,  to- 
gether with  its  physical  properties  and  chemical  reactions,  are 
equally  applicable  to  inorganic  compounds. 

SCHEME   FOR  THE  ANALYSIS   OF   BLOOD. 

(STRECKER  HANDW.  D.  CHEM.,  ii  [2],  115.) 

WATER  DETERMINATION. — Evaporate  a  weighed  quantity; 
dry  the  residue  at  120°-130°  C.,  and  weigh. 

FIBKINE  DETERMINATION. — The  blood,  as  it  runs  from  a 
vein,  is  received  in  a  tared  vessel,  and  stirred  from  five  to  ten 
minutes  with  a  glass  rod,  the  weight  of  which  is  included  in 
the  tare,  till  the  fibrine  is  completely  separated.  The  blood, 
together  with  the  separated  fibrine,  is  then  weighed,  strained 
through  linen,  and  the  fibrine  which  remains  thereon  is  placed 
for  some  time  in  water,  then  dried,  well  boiled  with  alcohol 
and  ether,  to  free  it  from  fat,  and  weighed  after  drying  at 
120°  C.  (Bacquerel  and  Epdier.) 

ESTIMATION  OF  ALBUMEN  AND  OTHER  MATTERS  COAGULABLE 
BY  HEAT. — A  weighed  quantity  of  blood,  slightly  acidulated 
with  acetic  acid,  is  added  by  drops  to  boiling  water,  the  liquid 


448  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

is  poured  through  a  weighed  filter,  and  the  coagulum  collected 
thereon ;  it  is  then  washed  on  the  filter  with  boiling  water, 
and  dried,  first  at  a  gentle  heat,  afterwards  at  120°  to  130°  C. 
The  residue  may  be  freed  from  fat  by  treatment  with  boiling 
ether.  If  the  blood  had  not  been  previously  freed  from 
fibrine,  the  weight  of  that  substance,  determined  as  above, 
must  be  deducted  from  the  total  weight  of  the  coagukim. 

ESTIMATION  OF  THE  EXTRACTIVE  MATTER. — The  filtrate 
obtained  in  the  last  determination  is  evaporated  on  a  water- 
bath  in  a  tared  platinum  basin,  the  residue  dried  at  120°  C., 
weighed,  and  burnt  in  a  muffle  at  as  low  a  heat  as  possible. 
The  weight  of  the  ash,  deducted  from  that  of  the  total  dried 
residue,  gives  approximately  the  amount  of  extractive  matter. 

ESTIMATION  OF  FAT. — A  quantity  of  blood  (which  need  not 
be  weighed)  is  dried  at  100°  C. ;  the  residue  is  pulverized  and 
dried  at  120°  C.,  and  a  weighed  portion  thereof  is  treated  with 
ether  in  a  flask ;  the  ether  is  passed  through  a  small  filter  into 
a  tared  platinum  capsule ;  and  the  treatment  of  the  residue 
with  ether  is  repeated  several  times.  The  collected  ethereal 
solution  is  carefully  evaporated,  and  the  residue  dried  at 
100°  C.  As  the  weight  of  the  solid  constituents  of  the  blood 
have  been  previously  determined,  the  quantity  of  blood  from 
which  this  fat  has  been  obtained  may  be  calculated  from  that 
of  the  residue  which  was  subjected  to  treatment  with  ether. 

ESTIMATION  OF  MINERAL  CONSTITUENTS. — A  weighed  quan- 
tity of  the  blood  is  dried,  mixed  with  ignited  sodic  carbonate, 
then  dried  and  incinerated  in  the  muffle  at  the  lowest  possible 
temperature,  then  treated  according  to  scheme  for  the  analysis 
of  ash. 

SEPARATE  ESTIMATION  OF  THE  SERUM  AND  COAGULUM,  WITH 
THEIR  CONSTITUENTS. — The  fresh  blood  is  collected  in  a  tared 
cylindrical  vessel,  having  a  ground  edge,  and  not  too  shallow ; 
it  is  covered  with  a  glass  plate  and  left  to  stand  till  the  coagu- 
lation is  complete,  after  which  the  edge  of  the  clot  is  detached 
from  the  sides  of  the  vessel  by  means  of  a  needle.  The  blood 
is  then  weighed,  and  after  the  clot  has  contracted  as  much  as 


THE    CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  449 

possible,  the  serum  is  poured  off,  and  the  quantity  of  albumen, 
etc.,  contained  in  it  is  determined  as  above  described.  The 
clot  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  vessel  are  then  freed  from 
serum  as  completely  as  possible  by  wiping  with  bibulous 
paper,  and  the  clot  is  weighed  on  the  vessel.  This  weight 
deducted  from  the  total  weight  of  the  blood,  gives  the  propor- 
tion of  serum,. 

The  clot  contains  the  blood-corpuscles,  the  fibrine,  and  a 
certain  quantity  of  serum  ;  the  amount  of  water  contained  in 
it  may  be  determined  by  drying  at  120°  to  130°  C. ;  but  there 
is  no  known  method  of  directly  estimating  the  amount  of  the 
blood-corpuscles.  Prevost  and  Dumas  estimated  it  approxi- 
mately, on  the  assumption  that  the  water  contained  in  the  clot 
is  all  due  to  adhering  serum,  and  accordingly  deducted  from 
the  weight  of  the  dried  clot  an  amount  of  serum-constituents 
corresponding  to  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  clot,  together 
with  the  amount  of  fibrine  separately  determined.  As,  however, 
the  blood-corpuscles  themselves  contain  water,  this  method 
necessarily  makes  the  quantity  of  dried  corpuscles  too  small. 

The  separation  of  hematin  from  globulin  cannot  be  effected ; 
but  if  the  quantity  of  iron  in  the  dried  coagulum  be  determined, 
the  amount  of  blood  pigment  may  be  calculated  on  the  sup- 
position that  this  pigment  contains  6.64  per  cent,  of  iron. 
(See  Analysis  of  Man.) 


450  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


SCHEME   FOR   THE  ANALYSIS  OF   URINE* 

The  following  method  is  designed  more  particularly  for  the 
analysis  of  the  urine  of  herbivorous  animals,  but  it  may  be 
applied  in  the  examination  of  that  of  carnivorous  animals 
and  man  also. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY.  —  Determine  this  by  comparing  the 
weights  of  equal  volumes  of  the  urine  and  of  water,  or  with 
the  urometer,  a  species  of  hydrometer  constructed  expressly 
for  this  purpose ;  when  this  instrument  is  used,  all  foam  must 
be  carefully  removed  from  the  surface  of  the  liquid  by  filter- 
paper. 

A  difference  of  4°  C.  in  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  usu- 
ally makes  a  difference  of  about  1°  in  the  reading  of  the 
urometer. 

The  specific  gravity  of  urine  ranges  between  1.01  and  1.04. 

1.  TOTAL  AMOUNT  OF  DRY  SUBSTANCE  IN  SOLUTION. — Deter- 
mine this  by  evaporating  a  weighed  quantity  in  a  current  of 
dry  hydrogen  in  such  a  manner  as  to  estimate  the  ammonia 
that  is  expelled  at  the  same  time.  Take  4-6  c.c.  of  the  urine, 
accurately  weighed  ;  the  evaporation  to  dry  ness  is  completed 
in  4-5  hours. 

In  human  urine,  that  has  an  acid  reaction  due  to  acid  sodic 
phosphate,  the  ammonia  may  be  assumed  to  have  been  driven 
from  urea,  and  by  multiplying  the  amount  of  it  by  1.765  the 
corresponding  amount  of  urea  will  be  obtained.  But  in  the 
urine  of  herbivorous  animals,  the  ammonia  resulting  from  this 
decomposition  must  be  estimated  by  the  difference  between 
the  ammonia  set  free  on  evaporation  to  dryness  and  that  found 
in  the  urine  by  direct  determination.  Generally,  however, 

*  Taken  from  Agric.  Chem.  Anal.     Caldwell. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  451 

these  quantities  of  ammonia  are  very  small,  and  can  be  left  out 
of  consideration. 

2.  The  NON-VOLATILE  MATTER  in  this  residue  left  on  evap- 
oration, is   determined   by  evaporating   a  fresh  quantity  of 
100  c.c.  of  the  urine  in  a  platinum  dish,  and  igniting  the  resi- 
due ;  determine  carbonic  acid  in  the  ash. 

3.  CARBONIC  Aero  (free  and  combined). — Determine  this  in 
two  portions  of  100  c.c.  of  the  fresh  urine.     To  one  portion 
add  baric  chloride  containing  ammonic  hydrate  in  excess,  and 
to  the  other  baric  chloride  alone  ;    heat  both  mixtures  nearly 
to  boiling ;  collect  the  precipitates  on  dried  and  weighed  fil- 
ters;  wash,  and  dry  them  at   100°;    weigh,  and  determine 
carbonic  acid  in  1-2  grams  of  each  precipitate ;  the  first  pre- 
cipitate contains  the  total  carbonic  acid,  the  second  only  the 
combined. 

4.  NITROGEN. — The  residue  left  from  (1)  may  be  used  for 
the  determination  of  nitrogen,  or  another  portion  of  5-10  c.c. 
of  the  urine  may  be  acidified  with  oxalic  acid,  mixed  with 
ignited  gypsum,  and  evaporated  to  dryness.     In  the  former 
case  this   second  residue  will  contain  only  so  much  of  the 
nitrogen  as  was  not  expelled  in  the  form  of  ammonia  during 
the  desiccation ;  in  the  latter,  the  oxalic  acid  will  prevent  the 
escape  of  any  nitrogen  as  ammonia.     The  dry  substance  may 
be  completely  rinsed  oif  the  sides  of  the  dish  with  some  of 
the  soda-lime  used  in  the  combustion. 

Or,  this  method  of  Voit  may  be  used :  Weigh  out  about 
5  c.c.  of  the  urine  ;  mix  it  in  a  shallow  dish  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  fine  quartz-sand  to  absorb  it  all ;  put  the  dish 
under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  and  exhaust  the  air ;  the 
whole  becomes  quite  dry  in  a  few  hours  and  may  be  pulverized 
easily,  and  completely  loosened  from  the  sides  of  the  dish  and 
mixed  with  the  soda-lime. 

The  combustion  may  be  performed  in  a  short  combustion- 


452  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

tube,  and  very  rapidly,  without  fear   of  losing  any  of  tlie 
ammonia. 

5.  ACTUAL  AMMONIA.— Determine  this  by  Schlossug's  method 
in  20  c.c.  of  the  urine,  after  filtration  to  remove  slimy  or  sedi- 
mentary matters.    In  the  fresh  urine  of  horned  cattle,  the  actual 
ammonia  does  not  amount  to  more  than  0.009-0.01  per  cent., 
but  in  human  urine  it  ranges  as  high  as  0.078-0.143  per  cent. 

6.  COMPLETE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  ASH. — Evaporate  200-500 
grams   of  the  urine  to  dryness ;    incinerate  the  residue,  and 
examine  the  ash  for  its  constituents  in  the  usual  manner.    The 
ash  of  the  urine  of  herbivorous  animals  is  poor  in  alkaline 
earths,  and  8-10  grams  will  be  required  for  their  determina- 
tion.    In  the  urine  of  ruminants,  phosphoric  acid  is  found  in 
hardly  deterrninable  quantity ;   while   in  that  of  swine,  and 
often  of  calves,  it  is  present  in  large  quantity  and  should  be 

estimated. 

%• 

7.  CHLORINE  AND  UREA. — These  are  determined  with  the 
aid  of  the  standard  solution  of  mercuric  nitrate.     The  urine 
must  first  be  freed  from  phosphoric  and  hippuric  acids.    Acid- 
ify 200  c.c.  with  nitric  acid;    boil  the  mixture  to  expel  the 
carbonic  acid ;   neutralize  the  nitric  acid  with  freshly  ignited 
magnesia,  and  cool  the  liquid  to  the  temperature  of  the  room, 
by  immersing  the  flask  in  cold  water ;  transfer  the  liquid  to  a 
graduated  cylinder,  rinse  the  flask  into  the  cylinder  and  bring 
the  volume  of  its  contents  to  220  c.c. ;  add  30  c.c.  of  an  aque- 
ous solution  of  ferric  nitrate  of  such  a  degree  of  concentration 
that,  with  this  quantity  of  the  solution  added,  the  salt  will  be 
slightly  in  excess ;   the  excess  may  be  recognized  by  a  weak 
reaction  of  the  solution  on  a  slip  of  filter-paper  soaked  in  a 
dilute  solution  of  potassic  ferrocyanide  ;  too  large  an  excess  of 
the  ferric  salt  will  be  indicated  by  a  re-solution  of  the  precipi- 
tate that  was  formed  at  first  on  its  addition  ;  filter  the  liquid 
immediately  through  a  large,  dry,  ribbed  filter,  and  to  150  c.c. 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  453 

of  the  filtrate  add  50  c.c.  of  a  solution  of  baryta  mixed  with  a 
little  calcined  magnesia ;  filter  again,  and  for  each  determina- 
tion of  sodic  chloride  and  urea  take  15  c.c.  of  this  filtrate, 
corresponding  to  9  c.c.  of  urine. 

(a.)  Chlorine  (common  salt). — Acidify  exactly  15  c.c.  of  the 
liquid  with  a  drop  of  nitric  acid,  and  allow  the  standard  solu- 
tion of  mercuric  nitrate  to  flow  in  from  the  burette,  with 
constant  stirring,  until  a  permanent  turbidity  appears.  A 
mere  opalescent  appearance  of  the  liquid,  which  may  be  pre- 
sented even  in  the  beginning,  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
cloudy  turbidity  which  is  the  real  indication  of  saturation. 
Estimate  the  amount  of  sodic  chloride,  or  of  chlorine,  on  the 
basis  of  the  standard  of  the  solution  already  determined. 

(&.)  Urea. — In  a  second  portion  of  15  c.c.  of  the  liquid, 
proceed  to  determine  urea  with  the  same  standard  solution. 
Subtract  from  the  total  amount  of  solution  required,  the 
amount  used  in  one ;  and  also  make  the  correction  required  for 
dilution  of  the  solution. 

8.  HIPPTIRIC  ACID. — Evaporate  200  c.c.  of  the  urine  down 
to  50  c.c.,  and  precipitate  the  acid  with  hydrochloric  acid,  etc. 
It  may  be  well  to  first  digest  the  urine  with  animal  charcoal 
in  the  proportion  of  two  grams  of  charcoal  to  10  c.c.  of  the 
liquid,  in  order  to  decolorize  it. 

There  are  usually  only  traces  of  uric  acid  in  the  urine  of 
herbivora,  and  it  cannot  be  estimated ;  but  in  the  urine  of 
carnivora  the  proportion  of  uric  acid  generally  exceeds  that 
of  the  hippuric. 

According  to  the  process  of  Meissner  and  Shepard,  for 
separating  these  two  acids,  evaporate  the  urine  until  it  begins 
to  crystallize ;  add  so  much  absolute  alcohol  to  the  hot  liquid 
that  a  further  addition  causes  no  more  precipitation  ;  let  the 
mixture  cool,  and  filter  it;  the  best  absolute  alcohol  must  be 
used,  and  it  must  not  be  spared,  else  succinic  acid  may  remain 
in  solution  with  the  hippuric  and  cause  trouble.  Evaporate 
the  alcoholic  solution,  at  first  in  a  flask  on  the  water-bath, 


454  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

until  all  the  alcohol  and  the  water  are  expelled  and  only  a 
brown  syrup  remains,  that  solidifies  to  a  crystalline  mass  on 
cooling ;  extract  this  mass,  while  yet  warm  and  liquid,  with 
ether  and  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  added  after  the 
ether;  agitate  the  mixture  violently,  and  repeat  the  process 
two  or  three  times  with  fresh  portions  of  ether.  If  the  alco- 
hol and  water  were  not  carefully  removed  in  the  preceding 
evaporation,  some  of  the  urea  will  pass  into  this  ethereal 
solution.  Collect  the  ethereal  extracts,  distil  off  most  of  the 
ether,  and  let  the  rest  evaporate  spontaneously  in  the  air. 

Hippuric  acid  appears  then  in  the  form  of  handsome  crystals. 
If  the  crystals  are  not  colorless,  or  they  are  not  readily  formed, 
dilute  the  residue,  left  by  the  evaporation  of  the  ether,  with 
water,  boil  the  mixture  with  lime-water,  filter,  concentrate  the 
colorless  filtrate,  and  precipitate  the  hippuric  acid  by  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  excess. 

9.  PHOSPHORIC  ACID. — (a.)  This  may  be  determined  directly 
in  the  urine,  with  the  standard  uranic  solution.  Filter  the 
urine,  if  necessary,  add  5  c.c.  of  sodic  acetate  to  50  c.c.  of  the 
filtrate,  and  titrate  the  mixture  with  uranic  acetate. 

(b.)  To  obtain  a  more  accurate  determination,  add  the  mag- 
nesia mixture  to  50  c.c.  of  the  clear  urine,  collect  and  wash 
the  precipitate  in  the  usual  manner,  dissolve  it,  without  dry- 
ing, in  acetic  acid  in  not  to  great  excess,  dilute  the  solution  to 
50  c.c.  with  water,  add  5  c.c.  of  the  solution  of  sodic  acetate, 
and  titrate  as  before  with  the  uranic  solution. 

(c.)  To  determine  the  phosphoric  acid  that  is  combined  with 
alkaline  earths  only  to  100-200  c.c.  of  the  urine,  according  to 
its  strength,  add  ammonic  hydrate  until  alkaline  reaction 
ensues,  let  the  mixture  stand  twelve  hours,  and  collect  and 
treat  the  precipitate  in  the  manner  described  in  (I).  In 
another  precisely  equal  quantity  of  urine,  the  precipitate  by 
ammonic  hydrate  is  ignited  and  weighed;  the  amount  of 
magnesic  pyrophosphate  in  this  mixture  may  be  estimated  by 
multiplying  the  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  in  it,  as  determined 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  455 

above,  by  2.1831,  subtracting  the  sum  of  the  phosphates  from 
this  product,  and  multiplying  the  remainder  by  2.5227.  It'  it 
is  desired  to  determine  lime  and  magnesia  directly,  dissolve 
the  mixture  of  the  phosphates,  obtained  above  by  precipitating 
with  ammonic  hydrate,  without  drying  it,  in  as  small  a  quan- 
tity of  acetic  acid  as  possible  ;  precipitate  the  lime  by  ammonic 
oxalate,  and  the  magnesia  as  phosph'ate  again  by  excess  of 
ammonic  hydrate. 

10.  SULPHURIC  ACID. — Heat  50-100  c.c.  of  the  urine,  add 
some  nitric  acid,  and  then  baric  chloride  in  slight  excess. 

11.  SULPHUR. — To  determine  the  total  sulphur,  mix  50  c.c. 
of  the  urine  in  a  silver  crucible  with  solid  potassic  oxide  and 
a  little  saltpetre ;  evaporate  the  mixture  cautiously  to  dryness, 
ignite  the  residue  strongly  until  it  is  quite  white,  exhaust  it 
with  water,  and  determine  sulphuric  acid  in  the  filtered  solu- 
tion, in  the  usual  manner. 

12.  CARBON  AND  HYDROGEN. — Absorb  10  c.c.  of  the  urine 
by  fine  quartz-sand  that  has  been  previously  boiled  with  acid, 
washed  and  ignited,  dry  the  mixture,  and  burn  it  with  plumbic 
chromate. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  healthy  urine,  by  Marchand : 

Water 933.199 

Urea 32.675 

Uric  acid 1.065 

Lactic  acid 1.521 

Extractive  matters 11.151 

Mucus 0.283 

Potassic  sulphate 8  587 

Sodic  sulphate 3.213 

Ammonic  diphosphate 1.552 

Sodic  chloride 4.218 

Ammonic  chloride 1.652 

Calcic  and  magnesic  phosphate 1.210 

Lactates 1.618 

1000.000 


456 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


The  following  analyses  are  by  Yernois  and  Becquerel,  show- 
ing  the  comparative  composition  of  male  and  female  urine : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

MEAN  COMPOSITION 

OF  THE 

UEINE  OF  FOUR 
HEALTHY  MEN. 

MEAN  COMPOSITION 

OF   THE 

URINE  OF  FOUR 
HEALTHY  WOMEN. 

GENERAL 
MEAN. 

Specific  gravity  

1  0189 

1  01512 

1  01701 

Water  

968  815 

975  052 

971  935 

Solid  constituents  
Urea  

31.185 
13  838 

24.948 
10366 

28.066 
12  102 

Uric  acid  

0391 

0406 

0  398 

Other  organic  matters  .... 

9261 

8033 

8  647 

Fixed  salts  

7695 

6143 

6  919 

Consisting  of— 
Chlorine 

0  502 

Sulphuric  acid  .... 

0  855 

Phosphoric  acid     .    . 

0  317 

Potassic  oxide 

1  300 

Sodic,  calcic,  and  magnesic  ) 
oxide                                ' 

— 

— 

3.944 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  457 

SCHEME    FOR   THE   QUANTITATIVE   ANALYSIS 
OF  MILK. 

Evaporate  to  dry  ness  at  a  gentle  heat  over  a  water-bath 
5  grains  of  milk ;  heat  the  same  in  an  air-bath  to  105°  C., 
until  constant  weight. 


Loss  IN  WEIGHT 
will  equal  the  WATER. 


WEIGHT  OF  RESIDUE 
ll  equal  the  MILK- SOLIDS. 


TREATMENT  OF  THE    MILK    SOLIDS. 

Moisten  with  alcohol  and  disintegrate  the  mass ;  then  boil 
with  ether  two  or  three  times  to  extract  the  fat. 

Evaporate  the  ether-extract  over  a  water-bath  at  a  moderate 
heat  to  expel  the  ether ;  transfer  to  the  air-bath  and  increase 
the  heat  to  105°  C.  to  expel  any  traces  of  water  or  alcohol. 
Weigh  the  residue,  which  will  equal  the  FAT.  If  the  first 
residue,  after  extracting  the  fat  with  ether,  be  heated  to  expel 
any  ether  and  alcohol  it  may  contain,  and  weighed,  the  differ- 
ence in  weight  of  the  milk-solids  and  this  weight  will  equal 
\ksfat  extracted. 

Heat  the  residue,  after  extracting  the  fat  and  evaporating 
to  expel  ether,  with  alcohol  (95  per  cent.),  then  add  25  c.c.  of 
boiling  water,  and  filter  through  a  weighed  filter-paper  ;  filter 
a  little  at  a  time,  keeping  the  remainder  hot  over  a  water-bath. 
When  solution  is  all  filtered,  wash  the  casein  on  the  filter- 
paper  with  a  little  boiling  water.  Add  to  filtrate  five  to  ten 
drops  of  acetic  acid,  and  evaporate  to  a  small  volume,  by 
which  means  all  the  casein  remaining  in  the  filtrate  is  coagu- 
lated ;  filter  through  the  same  filter-paper,  and  wash  the  casein 
again  on  the  filter-paper  with  hot  water. 

The  filter-paper  will  then  contain  the  casein  and  some  in- 
soluble salts.  Heat  in  an  air-bath  until  dry.  The  weight  of 
the  same,  minus  the  weight  of  the  filter-paper,  will  equal  the 
casein  and  some  insoluble  salts ;  ignite  and  subtract  the  weight 
of  ash.  The  remainder  will  equal  the  CASEIN. 


458  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Evaporate  the  filtrate  from  the  casein  over  a  water-bath, 
then  heat  in  the  air-bath  to  constant  weight  (note  the  weight). 
Ignite  the  dry  mass  and  weigh  (note  the  weight) ;  subtract  the 
last  weight  from  the  first,  and  the  remaining  weight  will  equal 

the   MILK-SUGAR. 

To  determine  the  inorganic  salts  evaporate  to  dryness  and 
ignite  to  constant  weight  about  5  grams  of  milk.  The  weight 
obtained  will  equal  the  inorganic  salts. 

The  following  very  convenient  method  for  the  analysis  of 
milk  is  adopted  by  Chandler : 

Water  is  determined  by  evaporating  a  weighed  portion  of 
milk  in  a  flat  platinum  dish  (about  half  an  inch  deep  and  one 
and  a  half  inches  in  diameter)  at  212°  F.  The  loss  in  weight 
is  the  WATER.  The  salts  are  determined  by  carefully  inciner- 
ating the  solid  residue  left  after  the  evaporation  of  the  water. 
For  the  determination  of  the  other  constituents  a  platinum 
dish  is  nearly  filled  with  pure  quartz-sand ;  the  whole  weighed ; 
a  small  quantity  of  the  milk  is  added,  which  is  at  once  soaked 
up  by  the  sand,  and  the  whole  again  weighed  to  find  the  weight 
of  milk  taken.  The  whole  is  then  dried  at  212°  F.,  the  con- 
tents of  the  dish  extracted  with  anhydrous  ether,  and  again 
dried  ;  the  loss  in  the  weight  of  sand,  etc.,  indicates  the  per- 
centage of  BUTTER.  The  butter  may  be  weighed  directly  by 
evaporating  the  ethereal  solution  in  a  weighed  beaker.  The 
residue,  after  removing  the  butter,  is  washed  with  warm 
water,  to  the  first  of  which  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid  is  added 
to  remove  the  SUGAR.  The  difference  between  the  original 
weight  of  the  sand  and  of  the  sand  and  casein  indicates  the 
percentage  of  casein.  A  correction  must  be  made  in  the 
weights  of  the  sugar  and  casein  on  account  of  the  salts,  which 
are  wrashed  out  with  the  sugar.  By  evaporating  and  igniting 
the  sugar  solution,  the  salts  washed  out  will  be  determined ; 
they  must  be  deducted  from  the  percentage  of  sugar ;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  salts  (ash)  must  be  deducted  from  the  casein. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


459 


oo 

< 

^ 

z 
<c 

h- 

yj 
cr 


O 

cr 


co 

UJ 

co 


•9UIIWQ 


•II.OK 


"tf       IO 
O      oi 

C5 


o  o 

i—1  OJ 

CO  «0 

O  O5 


ss- 


§ 


§ 


0 
OJ  CO 


OO 
|> 


O  ri" 


S; 


o     10*     co 


s 


o     o     o 

CO       CO       CO 
•^t1       CO       r-i 


§(M 
CO 
rj?  CO* 


TH  CO 

07  ci 

O  10 


460 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MAXUAL. 


The  following  table  contains  the  average  composition  of  the 
products  obtained  from  milk  in  making  butter  (Alex.  Muller) : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

NEW 
MILK. 

SKIMMED 
MILK. 

CREAM. 

BUTTER- 
MILK. 

BUTTER,  t 

BRINE.  $ 

Fat 

400 

055 

3500 

167 

8500 

000 

Albuminoids*    

325 

3.37 

2/20 

3.33 

051 

039 

Milk-Sugar  

4.50 

4.66 

3.05 

4.61 

0.70 

3  84 

Ash 

075 

078 

0  50 

077 

C  12 

0  86 

Water             ...      . 

8750 

9064 

59.25 

89.62 

1367 

9491 

Total  

100.00 

10000 

100  00 

100  CO 

10000 

100  00 

*  Casein  and  albumen.  t  Unsalted. 

%  Brine  that  separates  on  working  after  salting ;  salt  not  included. 

The   following   table   contains   analyses   of  cheese   by   E. 
Hornig  (1869) : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

DUTCH 
CHEESE. 

RAMADOUX 
CHEESE. 

NEUF- 

CHATEL 

CHEESE. 

GORGON- 
ZOLA 
CHEESE. 

BRINGEN 
or  LIPTACE 
CHEESE. 

SCHWERZ- 

ENBERG 

CHEESE. 

LIMBURG 

CHEESE. 

Water 

33.65 
20.14 
34.90 
6.17 
0.13 

100.00 

56.60 
17.05 
18.76 
6.78 
0.81 

51.21 
9.16 
33.63 
6.01 
0.02 

57.64 
20.31 
18.51 
3.51 
0.04 

100.00 

36.72 

as.69 

25.67 
3.71 
0.21 

34.08 
28.04 
23.23 
5.58 
0.03 

59.28 
10.44 
24.09 
6.17 
0.02 

100.00 

49.34 
20.63 
24.26 
5.45 
0.32 

100.00 

Fatty  Matters  
Casein 

Salts 

.Loss  

100.00 

100.00 

10000 

100.00 

The  following  analyses  of  cheese  are  given  by  Yoelcker : 


I 

^ 

t 

3  1 

pad 

(z; 

CONSTITUENTS. 

§ 

3p 

11 

fc  o 

O 

o 

£ 

°I 

Q£ 

fij 

S 

Water  

32  59 

2027 

3032 

3244 

28  10 

07  on 

Butter  

32.51 

43.98 

35.53 

30.17 

3368 

35.41 

Caseine  

26.06 

) 

28.18 

31.75 

30.31 

25.87 

Sugar  of  Milk.  .  .  ) 
Lactic  Acid  \ 

4.53 

V    33.55   ) 

1.66 

1.22 

3.72 

6.21 

Mineral  Matter  .  .  . 

4.31 

2.20 

4.31 

4.42 

4.19 

5.22 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Nitrogen 

417 

389 

451 

ft  10 

A  QPt 

414 

Common  Salt  

1.59 

0.29 

1.55 

1.42 

1.12 

1.97 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


461 


The  composition  of  whey  is  as  follows  (Vcelcker) : 

Water. 89.65 

Butter 0.79 

Casein 3.01 

Milk-Sugar 5.72 

Mineral  Salts  . .  0.83 


100.00 


The  following  analyses  are  by   Dr.  E.  Waller  (made  in 
January,  18T5): 


AMERICAN. 

EAGLE. 

NEW  YORK. 

NATIONAL. 

Fat 

1  Q  G7 

Casein 

lu.Jiy 

14.  Jo 

.^o 

lo.vt 
1  A.  no 

Suo-ar  

.4>\) 

lo.Oi 

lo.Uo 

ll.Uo 
1  ft  A.  A. 

Salts 

1U.  04 

.04 

lo.yu 

200 

Water 

.77 

2.10 

2.00 

.OO 

p-Q    C\4 

5d.04 

56.  80 

55.86 

O».<«4: 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

462 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


SUGARS    AND   SOME    ALLIED    BODIES. 

(MlLLEB.) 


VARIETY  AND 
ORIGIN  OP  SUGAR. 


Sucrose,  or 
cane-sugar, 

^12^22^11 

from  sugar- 
cane. 


PRINCIPAL  PROPERTIES. 


Crystallizes  in  four  or  six-sided  rhomboidal  prisms, 
is  very  soluble  in  water,  less  so  in  diluted  alcohol, 
sp.  gr.  1.6,  fuses  at  about  320°  F.  (160°  C.),  is  not  preci- 
pitated by  subacetate  of  lead,  but  is  so  by  an  ammo- 
niacal  solution  of  acetate  of  lead,  does  not  reduce  an 
alkaline  solution  of  potassio  cupric  tartrate  on  boiling, 
produces  r^Mianded  rotation  =  73°. 8,  undergoes  alco- 
holic fermentation  with  yeast,  combines  with  alkalies, 
yields  dextrose  and  levulose  when  boiled  with  dilute 
acids,  with  nitric  acid  yields  saccharic  and  oxalic  acids. 


Inverted 

cane-sugar, 

C6H1206; 

from  many 

recent  fruits. 


Is  not  crytallizable,  is  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol,  is 
not  precipitated  by  subacetate  of  lead,  reduces  an  alka- 
line solution  of  potassio-cupric  tartrate  by  boiling,  pro- 
duces ^-handed  rotation  =  —  26°  at  59°  F.  (15°  C.), 
undergoes  alcoholic  fermentation  with  yeast,  turns 
brown  when  treated  with  alkalies,  is  partially  con- 
verted into  grape-sugar  by  boiling  with  dilute  acids. 


Dextrose, 
or  grape-sugar, 
C6Hla06,H20; 

from  dried 

fruits,  or  from 

starch,  altered 

by  acids. 


Crystallizes  in  cubes  or  square  tables,  is  less  soluble 
in  water  than  cane-sugar,  but  more  soluble  in  alcohol, 
yields  a  precipitate  with  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead, 
reduces  potassio-cupric  tartrate  and  the  salts  of  mer- 
cury, silver  and  gold  when  boiled  with  them,  ferments 
readily  with  yeast,  produces  right-handed  rotation  = 
57°.4,  becomes  brown  when  treated  with  alkalies,  with 
nitric  acid  yields  saccharic  and  oxalic  acid. 


Lactose,  or 

sugar  of  milk, 

19TLtt0llt-RsO 

from  whey  of 

milk. 


Crystallizes  in  four-sided  prisms,  is  less  soluble  in 
water  than  grape-sugar,  is  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol 
and  ether,  is  precipitated  from  its  solutions  by  ammo- 
niacal acetate  of  lead,  reduces  the  salts  of  copper,  sil- 
ver, and  mercury,  when  its  alkaline  solution  is  boiled 
with  them,  produces  r^Mianded  rotation  =  56°. 4,  is 
not  directly  susceptible  of  alcoholic  fermentation,  is 
converted  into  galactose  by  boiling  with  dilute  acids, 
yields  mucic  and  oxalic  acids  with  nitric  acid. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


463 


VARIETY  AND 
ORIGIN  or  SUGAR. 


PRINCIPAL  PROPERTIES. 


Trelialose,  or 

mycose, 

^H^O^^ 

(Berthelot) ; 

Turkisli  manna, 

product  of 

insect  Larinus 

nidificans. 


Crystallizes  in  brilliant  rectangular  octohedra  or  in 
rliombic  prisms,  produces  right-handed  rotation  =  220°; 
if  heated  quickly  it  fuses  at  212°,  and  at  266°  (130°  C.) 
loses  H3O  and  becomes  solid  ;  may  be  heated  without 
decomposition  to  410°  (210°  C.),  when  it  melts  again  ; 
loses  its  water  of  crystallization,  is  very  soluble  in 
water,  and  in  hot  alcohol,  is  sparingly  soluble  in  cold 
alcohol  and  ether,  is  precipitated  by  ammoniacal  ace- 
tate of  lead,  does  not  reduce  potassio  cupric  tartrate, 
ferments  slowly  and  imperfectly  with  yeast,  yields 
dextrose  when  heated  with  dilute  acids,  does  not  give 
mucic  with  nitric  acid,  but  when  heated  with  it  yields 
saccharic  and  oxalic  acids. 


Melezitose, 

CigH^O^HgO 

(Berthelot)  ; 

from 
larch  manna. 


Crystallizes  in  short,  hard,  efflorescent  rhombic 
prisms,  is  very  soluble  in  water,  sparingly  soluble  in 
alcohol,  either  hot  or  cold,  insoluble  in  ether,  has 
a  sweetness  about  that  of  glucose,  fuses  at  280° 
(138°  C.),  is  precipitated  by  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead, 
does  not  reduce  the  alkaline  potassio-cupric  tartrate, 
produces  n#A£-handed  rotation  =  94°.  1,  ferments  with 
difficulty,  yields  dextrose  when  heated  with  dilute 
acids,  gives  no  mucic  acid  with  nitric  acid. 


Melitose, 

C12H24012.2H20 

(Berthelot); 

from  the 
Eucalyptus. 


Crystallizes  in  slender  prisms,  is  freely  soluble  in 
water,  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  is  feebly  sweet, 
melts  and  loses  water  at  260°  (127°  C.),  yields  a  precip- 
itate with  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead,  does  not  reduce 
an  alkaline. solution  of  potassio-cupric  tartrate,  exerts 
n^/iMiandecl  rotation  =  102°,  undergoes  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation with  yeast,  at  the  same  time  half  the  sugar 
is  separated  in  an  unfermentable  form  as  eucalin,  fur- 
nishes mucic  acid  with  nitric  acid,  is  little  affected  by 
alkalies. 


Eucalin, 

C6H12O6,H20 

(Berthelot); 

from 

fermentation  of 
melitose. 


Is  not  crystallizable,  precipitates  ammoniacal  acetate 
of  lead,  and  reduces  the  alkaline  potassio-cupric  tar 
trate  when  boiled  with  it,  produces  ngrAUianded  rota- 
tion =  about  50°,  is  not  susceptible  of  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation with  yeast,  becomes  brown  when  treated 
with  alkalies,  is  not  altered  by  boiling  with  dilute 
acids. 


464 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


VAKIETY  AND 
ORIGIN  op  SUGAR. 


Sorbin, 

C6H1206 

(Pelouze) ; 

from  berries  of 

service  tree, 

Sorbus 
aucuparia. 


PRINCIPAL  PROPERTIES. 


Crystallizes  in  octohedra  with  a  rectangular  base,  is 
very  soluble  in  water,  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
sp.  gr.  1.65,  is  fusible  without  loss  of  weight,  gives  a 
white  precipitate  with  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead,  re- 
duces the  alkaline  solution  of  potassio-cupric  tartrate 
on  heating  it  with  it,  occasions  fc/Mianded  rotation 
=  —  46C.9,  is  not  fermentable  with  yeast,  but  with 
cheese  and  chalk  slowly  yields  lactic  and  butyric  acids 
and  alcohol,  becomes  brown  when  treated  with  alka- 
lies, yields  a  red  solution  with  oil  of  vitriol,  is  con- 
verted into  oxalic  and  a  little  racemic  acid  by  nitric 
acid. 


Inosin, 
C6H1806,2H20 

(Scherer) ; 

from  muscular 

tissue. 


Crystallizes  in  radiated  tufts,  is  soluble  in  water, 
insoluble  in  absolute  alcohol  and  ether,  loses  water  by 
heat,  and  fuses  at  410°  (210°  C.),  has  no  rotatory  power 
on  polarized  light,  does  not  reduce  the  alkaline  potas- 
sio-cupric tartrate  when  boiled  with  it,  is  not  suscepti- 
ble of  alcoholic  fermentation,  but  with  cheese  and 
chalk  yields  lactic  and  butyric  acids,  is  not  altered  by 
boiling  with  dilute  acids  or  alkalies,  forms'  a  precipi- 
tate with  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead. 


Mannite, 

C6H1406; 

from  the  juice 

of  Fraxinus 

ornus. 


Crystallizes  in  silky  anhydrous  four-sided  prisms, 
is  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  fuses  at  320°  (160°  C.), 
gives  a  precipitate  with  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead, 
reduces  the  salts  of  silver  or  gold  by  heat,  does  not 
reduce  the  alkaline  potassio-cupric  tartrate  when  boiled 
with  it,  exerts  no  rotary  power  on  polarized  light,  is 
not  easily  fermentable,  with  nitric  acid  yields  saccharic 
and  oxalic  acids,  is  soluble  without  coloration  in  oil 
of  vitriol,  and  in  alkaline  solutions. 


Erythrite, 
C4H1004 

(V.  Luynes); 

from  Roccella 

and  other 

lichens. 


Crystallizes  in  broad,  voluminous  crystals  of  the 
pyramidal  system,  is  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol, 
fuses  at  248°  (120°  C.),  has  no  rotatory  power,  gives  no 
precipitate  with  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead,  does  not 
reduce  the  alkaline  potassio-cupric  tartrate,  yields  no 
mucic  acid  with  nitric  acid,  is  not  fermentable. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


465 


VARIETY  AND 
ORIGIN  OF  SUGAR. 


Dulcite, 
C6H1406 
(Laurent) ; 

origin 
unknown. 


PRINCIPAL  PROPERTIES. 


Crystallizes  in  brilliant  prisms,  is  soluble  in  water 
and  in  alcohol,  fuses  at  356°  (180°  C.),  gives  no  precip- 
itate with  acetate  or  subacetate  of  lead,  does  not  reduce 
nitrate  of  silver  or  chloride  of  gold,  produces  no  rota- 
tion on  polarized  light,  is  not  susceptible  of  fermenta- 
tion with  yeast,  is  not  affected  by  dilute  alkalies,  is 
converted  into  mucic  acid  by  nitric  acid. 


Quercite, 

C6H1205; 

from  acorns. 


Crystallizes  in  transparent  prisms,  is  soluble  in  water 
and  dilute  alcohol,  is  fusible  at  420°  (215°.5  C.),  does 
not  reduce  the  alkaline  potassio-cupric  tartrate,  is  not 
fermentable  by  yeast,  is  soluble  without  change  of 
color  in  oil  of  vitriol  and  in  the  alkalies,  yields  oxalic 
acid  with  nitric  acid. 


Finite, 

C6H1205 

(Berthelot) ; 

from  Pinus 

lumber  t  tana. 


Crystallizes  slowly  in  hard,  hemispherical  radiated 
masses,  has  a  very  sweet  taste,  is  very  soluble  in 
water,  is  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol,  gives  a  precipi- 
tate with  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead,  does  not  reduce 
the  alkaline  potassio-cupric  tartrate,  sp.  gr.  1.52,  pro- 
duces ng$£-handed  rotation,  is  not  fermentable,  fuses 
below  480°  (249°  C.),  does  not  yield  mucic  with  nitric 
acid. 


466  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

CANE-SUGAR. 

Cane-sugar,  or  sucrose,  is  the  sugar  of  commerce,  and  is 
prepared  from  the  sugar-cane,  Saccharum  officinarum*  which 
is  a  plant  of  the  grass  species ;  its  stalk  is  round,  knotted, 
and  hollow,  and  the  exterior  of  a  greenish-yellow  or  blue  with 
sometimes  violet  streaks. 

It  grows  from  2.6  to  6.6  metres  (8.4  to  22.5  ft.)  high,  and 
from  4:  to  6  centimetres  (1.6  to  2.4  inches)  in  thickness ;  the 
interior  is  cellular.  The  leaves  grow  to  a  length  of  1.6  to 
2  metres  (5.2 — 6.6  feet),  and  are  ribbed.  The  plant  is  grown 
from  seed,  and  also  cultivated  from  cuttings. 

A  hectare  (2.471  acres  English)  of  land  yields  of  new  sugar : 

By  15  Months'  Cultivation.  In  1  Year. 

From  Martinique. .  ..2,500  kilos  (  5,510  Ibs.  Av.).  .2,000  kilos  (  4,408  Ibs.  Av.) 
«     Guadaloupe... 3,000     "      (6,612"     ").. 2,400    "      (  5,289  "     ") 

"      Mauritius 5,000     "      (11,020"     ")..  4,000    "      (8,816"     ") 

"     Brazil 7,500     "      (16,530  "     "  ).. 6,000    "      (13,224  "     "  ) 

The  sugar-cane  yields  90  per  cent,  of  juice,  containing,  ac- 
cording to  Peligot,  18  to  20  parts  of  crystallized  sugar.  The 
following  analyses  are  of  the  components  of  sugar-cane : 

Composition  of  the  Otaheite  Cane  by  Pay  en : 

Water 71.04 

Cane-Sugar 18.00 

Cellulose,  lignite,  pectine,  and  pectic  acid 9.56 

Albumen  and  other  nitrogenous  principles 0.55 

Cerosine,  wax,  fats,  resins,  coloring  matter,  essential  oils,  etc.  0.37 

Soluble  salts 0.16 

Insoluble  salts 0.12 

Silica. .  0.20 


100.00 

By  PBUOOT.  By  DUPTTY.  By  ICERT. 

Martinique.  Guadaloupe.  Mauritius. 

Sugar 18.0 17.8 20.0 

Water 72.1 720 69.0 

Cellulose 9.9 9.8 10.0 

Salts.  .  .    —   .  .    0.4  . .  .    0.7-1.2 


*  See  Johnson's  Cycl.,  Article  "Sugar"  by  C.  F.  Chandler;  also  Wag- 
ner's Tech.,  p.  364. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  467 

Out  of  the  18  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  found  in  the  cane,  as  a 
rule  not  more  than  8  per  cent,  of  crystallized  sugar  can  be 
realized. 

The  loss  may  be  accounted  for  thus :  90  per  cent,  juice  is 
expressed  from  the  cane,  from  which  only  about  50  to  60  per 
cent,  can  be  clarified  from  the  straw,  etc. ;  a  fifth  part  is  ex- 
hausted by  refining ;  and  finally,  two-thirds  of  the  sugar  is 
obtained  by  boiling,  while  the  rest  goes  to  the  molasses.  The 
18  per  cent,  sugar  may  be  realized  in  the  following  manner : 

In  the  refuse  sometimes  remains 6    per  cent. 

By  skimming.  2.5  "      " 

In  the  molasses 3.     "      " 

As  raw  sugar 6.5  "      " 


18    per  cent. 

Cane-juice  from  the  Canade  la  tierra  in  Cuba,  when  evap- 
orated in  vacuo  at  the  atmospheric  temperature,  yields  in 
100  parts,  according  to  M.  Casacca : 

Crystalline  white  sugar 20.94 

Water 78.80 

Mineral  substances 0.14 

Organic  matter,  different  from  sugar 0.12 


100.00 

In  10  gallons  of  231  cu.  in.  of  cane-juice,  making  8J°  B., 
there  are  5|  ounces  of  salts,  which  consist  of: 

Potassic  sulphate 17.840  grams. 

Potassic  sulphate 16.028      " 

Potassic  chloride 8.355     " 

Potassic  acetate 63.750     " 

Calcic  acetate 36.010     " 

•Gelatinous  silica...  .  15.270     " 


Total 157.253  gr.  =  5.57  oz.  Av. 

VARIETIES  OF  SUGAR. — European  and  American  commerce 
deals  with  the  following  kinds  of  raw  sugars : 

1 .    West  Indian. — Cuba,  San  Domingo  or  Hayti,  Jamaica, 


\ 


468 


THE    CHEMISTS5    MANUAL. 


Porto-Rico,  Martinique,  Guadaloupe,  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas, 
Havana. 

2.  American. — Rio  Janeiro,  Bahia,  Surinam,  Pernambuco. 

3.  East  Indian. — Java,  Manila,  Bengal,  Mauritius,  Bour- 
bon, Cochin-China,  Siam,  Canton. 

Of  late  there  has  been  a  distinction  between  sugar  culti- 
vated by  slave  and  that  by  free  labor ;  the  latter  comes  from 
Jamaica,  Barbadoes,  Demerara,  Antigua,  Trinidad,  Dominica ; 
the  former  from  Cuba,  Havana,  Brazil,  St.  Croix,  and  Porto- 
Rico. 

Besides  the  above-named  sugar,  American  commerce  deals 
with  New  Orleans,  Mexico,  Honolulu,  and  sometimes  with 
Egyptian  sugars. 

According  to  method  of  preparation,  raw  sugars  have  re- 
ceived, besides  the  above,  the  following  names :  Melado,  clay, 
muscovado,  molasses,  centrifugal,  drone,  and  potted  sugars. 

The  raw  sugars  come  into  market  packed  in  hogsheads, 
tierces,  barrels,  bags,  mats,  baskets,  and  cheeroons. 

In  the  French  and  English  colonies  sugar  is  exported  in 
chests  covered  with  fire-clay  under  the  name  of  chest  or  tub 
sugar. 

The  mode  of  manufacture  depends  on  the  foreign  constituents 
of  sugar,  all  of  which  must  be  destroyed  before  the  sugar  can 
be  refined.  According  to  Mulder,  we  have  in  the  following 
sugars  from — 


JAVA. 
10  Samples. 

HAVANA. 

6  Samples 

SURINAM. 
4  Samples. 

Cane  Su°°aT"       . 

98  6—83  1 

97  o  87  3 

92  a    85  4 

Glucose            .                 .... 

55—03 

37  09 

44  i  6 

Extractive  matter,  gum,  etc. 
Ash             

3.5—  0.5 
1.9_  0.2 

4.5—  0.4 
1  1_  00 

2.1—  1.1 
Id    '0.8 

Water                      .  . 

63  03 

38      09 

69      40 

Molasses  is  produced  by  the  long-continued  heating  of  the 
cane-juice.      It  is  used  principally  in  the   colonies   for  the 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  469 

manufacture  of  rum ;  it  is  soon  converted  to  spirit,  and  then 
quickly  becomes  acetated. 

West  India  molasses,  according  to  Dr.  Wallace,  has  the 
following  composition : 

Cane-sugar 47.0 

Glucose 20.4 

Extractive  and  coloring  matter,  etc 2.7 

Salts  (ash) 2.6 

Water 27.3 


100.0 
Specific  gravity 1.36 

SUGAE  FROM  BEETS. — Marggraf,  in  the  year  1747,  was  the 
discoverer  of  sugar  in  beets,  and  suggested  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  this  source.  The  following  are  the  principal  sugar 
beets : 

Quendlinburg  ~beet  is  a  slender,  rose-colored  root,  and  very 
sweet ;  it  is  matured  fourteen  days  before  any  other  kind. 

Silesian  beet  is  a  pear-shaped  root,  white  in  the  body  and 
light-green  on  top ;  it  does  not  yield  as  much  sugar  as  the 
former,  but  as  more  beets  can  be  grown  on  the  same  amount 
of  ground,  it  produces  more  sugar.  It  is  much  cultivated  in 
France  and  Germany. 

Siberian  beet  is  known  as  the  white-ribbed  beet;  it  is  pear- 
shaped,  with  very  light  green  ribbed  leaves.  Percentage  of 
sugar  in  this  beet  is  less  than  Silesian  beet,  although  of 
greater  weight. 

The  French  or  Belgian  beet  has  small  leaves  and  a  slender 
and  spiral  root,  yielding  sugar. 

The  Imperial  beet  is  slender,  pear-shaped,  very  white,  rich 
in  sugar,  but  does  not  yield  as  well  as  Silesian  beet. 

The  King  beet  is  a  biennial ;  in  the  first  year  the  root  is 
merely  developed ;  in  the  second  it  bears  seed. 


470 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 
ANALYSES   OF   SUGAR   BEETS.* 


NAME. 


i-i   ^ 

is 


ANALYST. 


Hohenheim  ........ 

Mceckern 
||       21bs 

Bickendorf,  li'lba  ' 


Slaudstadt,  2  Ibs 
Lockwitz,    li  " 
Tharaud      H  u 

2     " 


manured 


Silesia,  manured  ................ 

"       with  sodic  nitrate 
u  "          u     calcic  phos. 


81.5 
84.1 
81.7 
79.5 
80.0 

80.0 
79.0 
82.7 
81.8 
82.1 
825 
84.4 
82.7 
84.1 


0.87 
0.82 
0.84 
0.90 
0.70 


0.93 
1.16 
1.14 
1.05 
1.14 
142 
1.20 


11.90 
9.10 
11.21 
12.07 
12.90 

13.37 

13.32 

12.34 

10.15 

9.25 

8.45 

9.80 

11.57 

9.82 


3.47 
3.90 
3.86 
5.09 


1.05 
1.36 
1.52 


Average . 


81.5 


0.95 


11.6 


5.00  |    1.20 

—Y— 

5.21 
5.53 
3.24 
5.77 
6.36 
7.07 
396 
3.63 
4.04 


0.99 
0.94 
0.88 
C.70 

0.74 
0.60 
0.79 
1.12 
1.15 
0.93 
0.69 
0.68 
0.77 


Wolff. 
Kitthausen. 


Grouven. 
StOckhardt. 


Bretschnieder 


3.7  I  1.3 


0.85 


*  From  "  How  Crops  Grow  " — (Johnson). 

The  following  analysis  is  more  elaborate  than  the  above, 
and  is  considered  a  fair  average  analysis  of  the  sugar  beet.* 

Per  cent. 
Water 82.30 

(1.)  Insoluble  Constituents. 

Cellulose 0.80 

Pectose,  pectase,  pectic,  and  pectosic  acids ... 

Metarabic  acid 

Fatty,  waxy,  and  resinous  bodies 

Albuminoids 

Pectates,  parapectates,  metapectates,  pectosates,  oxalates, 
and  phosphates  of  magnesium,  calcium,  iron,  and  man- 
ganese  

Silica 

(2.)  Soluble  Constituents. 

Cane-sugar 11.30 

Glucose — 

Albumen,  casein,  etc 1.50 

Asparagine  (C4H8N2O3) _ 

Betaine  (CgHnNOs) 0.10 


Carried  forward 96.60 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


Brought  forward 96.60 

Pectine,  parapectin,  metapectin,  and  pectase 

Gummy  bodies 

Cromogene 

A  yellow  extractive  body 

Parapectic,  metapectic,  aspartic,  citric,  and  malic  acids 

Pectates,  parapectates,  metapectates,  ci-trates,  malates,  ox- 
alates,  aspartates,  sulphates,  phosphates,  nitrates,  and 
chlorides  of  potassium,  sodium,  rubidium,  and  ammo- 
nium   

Citrates,  malates,  asparates,  sulphates,  nitrates,  and  chlo- 
rides of  magnesium,  calcium,  iron,  and  manganese 

Silica 

100.00 

Near  Magdeburg,  where  the  beet  is  extensively  cultivated, 
the  general  results  give  : 

The  greatest  sugar  productions,  as 13.3  per  cent. 

That  from  inferior  beets 9.2   "      " 

The  average  beet  yielding 11.2  "      " 

12 J  cwts.  of  beet  yield  on  an  average  1  cwt.  of  raw  sugar. 
THE   ANALYSIS  OF  CANE-SUGAR. 


CONSTITUENTS. 


Oxygen . . 
Carbon. . . 
Hydrogen 


56.63 

42.47 

6.90 


49.856 
43.265 

6.875 


PROUT. 


53.35 

39.99 

6.66 


UBE. 


50.33 

43.38 

6.29 


FOWNES. 


51.59 

41.98 

6.43 


fil 


51.46 

42.11 

6.43 


Formula  for  Sugar  (sucrose), 


SACCHARIMETRY. 

There  are  several  methods  for  determining  the  amount  of 
saccharine  matter  contained  in  the  various  crude  sugar  pro- 
ductions ;  the  following  may  be  employed : 


1.  MECHANICAL, 

2.  CHEMICAL,  or 

3.  PHYSICAL  METHOD. 


*  Taken  from  article  on  Sugar  by  C.  F.  Chandler — (Johnson's  Cycl.). 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

THE  MECHANICAL  METHOD  is  applicable  for  determining 
the  sugar  in  beets  : 

"  The*  middle  part  of  the  beet  is  cut  in  thin  slices  to  the 
weight  of  25  to  30  grams  each  and  dried.  From  the  differ- 
ence in  weight  before  and  after  drying,  the  quantity  of  water 
contained  in  the  root  is  ascertained.  The  dry  residue  is  pul- 
verized, and  then  treated  with  boiling  dilute  alcohol  of  a 
specific  gravity  of  0.83.  By  this  means  the  sugar  is  dissolved 
and  the  weight  ascertained.  The  insoluble  residue  gives,  after 
drying,  the  weight  of  the  cellulose,  proteine  bodies  and  min- 
eral constituents.  If  the  alcoholic  solution  be  placed  in  a 
vacuum  over  caustic  lime,  it  gradually  becomes  more  and  more 
concentrated  until,  after  standing  about  a  day,  the  sugar, 
owing  to  its  insolubility  in  absolute  alcohol,  may  be  collected 
in  small  colorless  crystals,  only  absolute  alcohol  remaining. 
Good  sugar-beets  give  20  per  cent,  dry  residue,  the  water 
amounting  to  80  per  cent.  Of  the  20  per  cent.,  13  per  cent. 
is  usually  sugar,  and  the  remaining  7  per  cent,  pectine, 
cellulose,  proteine,  and  mineral  substances.  The  higher  the 
specific  weight  of  the  juice  of  the  beet,  the  more  sugar  it  con- 
tains. The  juice  of  a  good  beet  properly  cultivated  marks 
8°  and  sometimes  9°  B." 

"  CHEMICAL  METHOD. — The  chemical  method  is  based  on 
the  following  facts : 

a.  The  known  proportional  solubility  of  calcic  hydrate  in 
cane-sugar. 

1).  The  capability  of  a  cane-sugar  solution  to  reduce  the 
hydroxides  of  copper  to  protoxides,  the  quantity  reduced 
affording  an  estimate ;  and  the  conversion  by  acids  of  cane- 
sugar  into  inverted  sugar  (a  mixture  of  levulose  with  dextrose 
or  glucose). 

c.  The  fermentation  of  sugar,  giving  rise  to  the  formation 
of  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid,  the  amount  of  which  can  be 
ascertained,  4C02  corresponding  to  one  molecule  of  cane-sugar 

C|2"22"  |  |- 

*  Wagner's  Technology. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  473 

The  first  of  these  methods  is  that  of  determining  the  solu- 
bility of  calcic  hydrate  in  a  cane-sugar  solution.  The  fluid 
containing  sugar  is  stirred  with  calcic  hydrate,  the  quantity 
of  which  dissolved,  estimated  by  titration  with  sulphuric  acid, 
determines  the  quantity  of  sugar. 

The  second  method  is  grounded  on  the  researches  of  M. 
Trommer,  who  found — 

(1.)  That  cane-sugar  in  an  alkaline  fluid  does  not  reduce 
cupric  oxide  ;  but  it  becomes  reduced  if  the  sugar  has  pre- 
viously been  boiled  with  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid,  the 
acid  converting  the  cane  into  inverted  sugar. 

(2.)  The  quantity  of  the  reduced  protoxide  is  proportional 
to  the  quantity  of  sugar.  Barreswil  and  Fehling  give  a  test 
based  on  this  law.  An  alkaline  solution  of  cupric  oxide  is  made 
by  dissolving  40  grams  of  cupric  sulphate  in  160  grams  of 
water,  and  adding  a  solution  of  160  grams  of  neutral  potassic 
tartrate  in  a  little  water,  with  600  to  700  grams  of  sodic 
hydrate  of  a  specific  gravity  1.12.  The  mixture  should  be 
diluted  to  1154.4  c.c.  at  15°.  A  litre  of  this  copper  solu- 
tion contains  34.65  grams  of  cupric  sulphate,  and  requires 
for  its  reduction  5  grams  of  dextrose  or  levulose ;  or  10 
atoms  cupric  sulphate  (1247.5)  are  reduced  by  means  of  one 
atom  of  dextrose  or  levulose  (180)  to  protoxide  (34.65  :  5 
=  1274.5  :  180  or  6.93  :  1),  10  c.c.  of  the  copper  solution 
corresponding  also  to  0.050  grams  of  dry  dextrose  or  levulose. 
Mulder  prefers  a  solution  in  which  1  part  of  cupric  oxide 
corresponds  to  0.552  parts  of  dextrose  or  levulose  of  the 
formula  C6HI206  +  H20;  by  the  use  of  this  test-liquor,  the 
amount  of  sugar  can  be  ascertained  with  great  accuracy.  By 
another  method  10  c.c.  of  this  copper  solution  are  heated  with 
40  c.c.  of  water,  and  placed  in  a  sugar  solution  till  all  the 
cupric  oxide  is  reduced.  When  this  point  is  nearly  reached, 
the  precipitate  becomes  redder  and  forms  more  rapidly.  Test- 
ing the  filtrate  with  potassic  ferrocyanide,  will  throw  down  a 
yellow  precipitate  if  there  be  sugar  in  excess.  The  copper 
salts  are  instantaneously  reduced  by  the  sugar  in  correspond- 


474  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

ing  quantities ;  long  boiling  is  not  necessary ;    100  parts  of 
dextrose  or  levulose  correspond  to  95  parts  of  cane-sugar." 

FERMENT  TEST. — "  The  third  method,  the  ferment  test,  as  it 
is  generally  termed,  is  grounded  on  the  fact  that  a  solution  of 
sugar  may  be  preserved  for  an  indefinite  period  in  an  open  or 
close  vessel ;  but  that  if  decomposing,  azotized  matter  be  acci- 
dentally or  intentionally  added,  the  sugar  is  converted  first  into 
dextrose  or  levulose,  which,  suffering  vinous  fermentation,  is 
converted  into  alcohol  with  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  : 

1  mol.  of  cane-sugar   )      yields  by       (4  mols.  of  carbonic  acid  =  176, 
(C^H^Ou  =342)   f  fermentation  1   4  mols.  of  alcohol  =  188. 

The  estimation  of  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is  easily 
performed  by  means  of  the  alkalimetric  apparatus  of  Fresenius 
and  Will.  The  fermentation  being  complete,  the  air  is  sucked 
out  of  the  apparatus  and  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  estimated 
from  its  loss,  which — 

multiplied  by  -y^  =  1.9432  gives  the  quantity  of  cane-sugar  ; 
«  «  juM>  _  2.04545  gives  the  quantity  of  dextrose." 

IY.  A  mixture  of  one-third  volume  ether  with  two-thirds 
volume  absolute  alcohol.  This  is  neither  charged  with  acid 
nor  saturated  with  sugar. 

SCHEIBLER'S  METHOD. 

This  method  is  founded  on  the  principle  of  treating  samples 
of  sugar  with  saturated  solution  of  sugar  in  alcohol ;  this  solu- 
tion dissolves  and  eliminates  the  impurities  of  the  sample 
without  in  the  least  acting  upon  the  crystallized  portion.  The 
necessary  reagents  for  analysis  are  : 

I.  Alcohol  of  85-86°  mixed  with  acetic  acid  (50  c.c.  to  each 
litre  of  alcohol),  and  saturated  with  sugar.     For  this  a  good 
refined  sugar  is  taken,  which  is  powdered  and  introduced  into 
the  bottle ;  the  above-mentioned  solution  is  poured  in,  it  is 
hermetically  closed,  and  shaken  frequently  during  several  days. 

II.  Alcohol  of  about  92°. 

III.  Alcohol  of  about  96°.     Alcohols  II  and  III  have  no 
addition  of  acetic  acid,  but  are  saturated  with  sugar,  as  was 
the  case  with  the  first  solution. 


THE    CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 
The  apparatus  required  is  shown  in  the  figure. 


it 


TU 


It  consists  of  a  50  c.c.  flask ;  the  neck  of  the  flask  is  some- 
what enlarged,  as  shown  in  the  figure  A.  Through  a  rubber 
stopper  K  is  inserted  the  glass  filtering-tube  OS.  At  the 
lower  end  of  this  tube  is  fastened  a  somewhat  larger  tube,  and 
to  this  is  fitted  a  felt-filter.  There  is  also  a  flask  B,  in  which 
a  vacuum  can  be  formed  by  means  of  suction.  This  flask  is 
attached  to  A  by  means  of  the  rubber  tube  P. 

The  operation  is  as  follows :  A  normal  quantity  of  sugar  is 
weighed  (26.048  grams  if  the  Ventzke's  polariscope  is  used, 
or  16.35  grams  if  the  Duboscq)  in  the  flask  A.  The  stopper 
with  the  filter-tube  is  inserted  in  the  flask. 

Solution  IV  is  now  introduced  into  the  flask  and  allowed  to 
remain  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  during  which  time  the 
water  of  the  sugar,  as  also  the  small  quantities  of  foreign  sub- 
stances, such  as  fatty  bodies,  alkaline  salts,  alkaline  salts  of 
fatty  acids  (butyric,  valerianic,  etc.),  are  dissolved,  and  the 
sugar  is  precipitated.  The  alcohol  and  ether  is  then  with- 
drawn into  the  flask  B  by  means  of  suction  applied  at  m. 


4:76 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


After  this  solution  No.  I  is  introduced,  and  then  No.  IIr 
about  10  c.  c.  of  each.  This  washing  separates  the  absolute 
alcohol  adhering  to  the  sugar,  which  is  finally  saturated  with 
solution  II.  After  this  latter  has  been  drawn  off  by  suction, 
solution  No.  I  is  introduced.  The  solution  is  left  for  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes,  sufficient  time  for  the  solution  of  all  im- 
purities of  the  raw  sugar,  the  molasses,  during  which  time  the 
mass  of  sugar  diminishes  in  volume  and  settles ;  the  solution 
is  then  removed  by  suction  the  same  as  the  others  into  the 
flask  B.  The  filter-tube  is  now  withdrawn,  and  any  adhering 
sugar  is  washed  into  the  flask ;  tri-plumbic  acetate  is  added, 
then  water,  until  the  50  c.c.  mark  is  reached.  The  solution 
is  then  polarized.  By  this  improved  method  it  is  claimed 
that  great  exactness  can  be  obtained,  much  time  spared,  and 
less  liability  to  loss  than  in  the  first  method  proposed  by 
Scheibler.  The  operation  occupies  about  two  hours,  and  sev- 
eral analyses  can  be  carried  on  at  the  same  time.* 

PHYSICAL  METHOD. — M.  Soleil  has  constructed  an  apparatus 
based  upon  the  rotatory  power  of  liquids,  for  analyzing  sac- 
charine substances,  to  which  the  name  saccharometer  is  applied. 

The  following  table  shows  the  effect  of  sugars  on  polarized 
light: 


SUGARS. 

FORMtTL-E. 

EFFECT  ON  POLARIZED 
LIGHT. 

Cane-suo"ar  (sucrose).  .    . 

C^gHogOn 

Right     73°  8 

Melezitose  (from  Larcli  manna) 

94°  1 

Mycose  (from  Turkish  manna,  product  ) 
of  an  inspct)  ...    i 

ClsHgijjOn 

"      193°.  0. 

Melitose  (from  eucalyptus) 

P     TT     O 

"      102°  0 

Dextrose  (grape-sugar)  

C,  H,0<X 

"        57°  4 

C«  H-oO. 

172°  0. 

Fruit-sugar  (lasvulose)  

C    HO 

Left  106°,atl3°.3d 

Eucalin  (from  fermentation  of  melitose).  . 
Sorbin  (from  berries  of  the  service  tree).  . 
Milk-sutrar  (lactose)  

C    HO 
C6  H1306 
C.  H^O* 

Right,  50  \0. 
Left,  46°.9. 
Rio-ht  56°  4 

Galactose                           . 

C     HO 

"      83°  3 

Inverted  sucrose  (from  honey  and  manna  ) 
and  some  fruits)  \ 

C6  H1306 

Left,  28°  at  14.12°  C. 

*  For  details  for  preserving  solutions,  etc.,  see  Am.  Chem.,  March  1873 
and  September  1873. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


477 


The  above  table,  according  to  Berthelot,  are  the  rotary 
powers  of  the  different  varieties  of  sugar,  if  equal  weights  of 
each  are  dissolved  in  an  equal  bulk  of  water ;  the  quantity  of 
each  sugar  is  calculated  for  the  formulae  annexed. 


SOLEIL-DUBOSCQ    SACCHAROMETER. 


H, — Is  a  ray  of  light  (Argand  burner,  gas-light  is  generally 
used). 

P, — Is  the  polarizer,  formed  by  two  prisms,  one  of  crown 
glass,  the  other  of  calc  spar.  The  ordinary  and  extraordinary 
rays  are  polarized  at  right  angles,  the  ordinary  ray  alone  meets 
the  eye.  The  principal  division  of  the  spar  is  in  a  vertical 
plane  with  the  axis  of  the  instrument. 


478  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

H, — Two  quartz  plates  of  opposite  rotating  power  cut  per- 
pendicular to  axis  (c  and  d)  of  instrument,  having  a  thickness 
of  3. 75  millimetres  (or  7.50  m.m.),  equal  to  a  rotation  of  90°, 
and  gives  a  violet  tint  called  the  "  tint  of  passage,"  or 
"  transition  tint." 

T. — This  is  the  tube  made  of  copper  or  brass,  which  is 
sometimes  tinned  inside,  with  two  glass  plates  for  each  end  to 
close  the  tube  with,  so  that  it  can  hold  the  liquid  to  be 
analyzed. 

Q. — This  is  a  quartz  plate  5.5  millimetres  thick,  having  the 
property  of  right-handed  rotation. 

KK'. — This  is  a  wedge  of  left-handed  quartz  ;  it  is  made  by 
cutting  a  quartz  plate  with  two  parallel  sides,  obliquely,  so 
that  they  will  have  the  same  angle.  The  scale  of  the  instru- 
ment is  attached  to  these  parts :  ab  =  cd  =  4  millimetres. 

A, — Is  the  analyzer.  Formed  in  three  parts :  the  first  is  a 
very  small  flint-glass  prism,  the  second  is  a  crown-glass  prism, 
the  third  is  a  prism  of  calc  spar. 

C, — Is  a  plate  of  quartz. 

LL', — Is  a  Galilee  Telescope. 

]ST, — Is  a  nickel  prism,  which  with  C  (quartz  plate)  produces 
the  sensible  tints. 

S, — Is  the  eye  of  observer. 

NOTE. — The  Duboscq  instrument,  in  comparison  to  the  Ventzke,  is  best 
adapted  for  the  examination  of  raw  sugars,  for  the  reason  that  only  16.35 
grams  are  taken  for  analysis,  whilst  26.048  grams  are  required  for  the- 
Ventzke  instrument.  Some  raw  sugars  are  very  dark-colored,  and  are  diffi- 
cult to  decolorize  ;  therefore,  the  least  amount  of  sugar  taken  in  a  given 
quantity  of  water  (100  c.c.),  the  easier  will  it  be  to  decolorize  the  same. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  479 

THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SUGAR  BY  MEANS  OF  THE 
OPTICAL  SACCHAROMETER. 

The  analysis  of  sugar  solutions  by  means  of  the  optical  saccha- 
roraeter  usually  gives  rise  to  one  of  the  following  problems : 

(1.)  "  To  determine*  the  quantity  of  pure  sugar  in  the  solu- 
tion such  as  it  is ;  or, 

(2.)  To  determine  the  quantity  of  pure  sugar  in  the  solu- 
tion, irrespective  of  the  quantity  of  water  in  it ;  i.  e.,  the 
quantity  of  pure  sugar  in  the  substance  as  it  would  be  if 
deprived  of  its  water,  or,  more  briefly,  the  quantity  of  sugar 
in  the  dry  substance." 

In  the  first  case  we  must  treat  it  as  we  would  any  other 
saccharine  substance,  as  for  example — 

RAW    SUGARS. 

The  raw  sugar  to  be  analyzed  is  first  weighed  :  16.35  grams 
are  taken  if  a  Soleil-Duboscq  saccharometer  is  to  be  used,  or 
26.048  grams  if  a  Yentzke-Soleil  instrument  is  used.  The 
sugar  weighed  is  dissolved  in  a  small  beaker,  f  in  about  60  c.c. 
of  water,  and  then  transferred  to  a  small  flask  of  100  c.c. 
capacity,  being  careful  to  dissolve  every  particle  of  the  sugar 
and  transfer  the  same  to  the  flaskj  where  it  is  diluted  to 
90  c.c.,  after  which  4  c.c.  of  a  solution  of  common  salt  is 
added,  and  then  6  c.c.  of  tri-plumbic  acetate,  making  in  all 
10  c.c.  The  flask  is  then  agitated  for  a  few  moments,  when 
the  contents  are  filtered.  If  the  filtered  solution  has  a  reddish 
color, ^  it  may  be  filtered  through  well-dried  bone-black,  when 
the  red  color  will  disappear.  If  bone-black  is  not  at  hand,  to 
50  c.c.  of  the  filtrate  add  50  c.c.  of  water  and  filter  if  neces- 
sary, when  a  solution  will  be  obtained  which  can  be  examined 
in  the  saccharometer. 

*  Amer.  Chem.,  Oct.,  1873.     Article  by  P.  Casamajor. 

f  It  is  only  in  cases  of  very  dark  sugars  that  the  filtrate  may  sometimes 
be  red  ;  when  red  it  cannot  be  used  in  the  instrument. 

£  Nickel-plated  copper-beakers  will  be  found  to  be  very  useful,  especially 
in  the  case  of  centrifugal  sugars,  which  are  difficult  to  dissolve. 


480  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

The  filtrate  of  a  white  or  yellow  color  is  now  to  be  exam- 
ined in  the  saccharorneter.  The  tube  of  the  instrument  of 
20  c.c.  capacity,  and  20  centimetres  in  length,  is  thoroughly 
washed  out  with  the  filtrate  and  then  filled  to  overflowing,  when 
the  open  end  is  covered  by  a  round  piece  of  glass,  and  the  cap 
is  put  on.  The  tube  is  then  put  in  the  instrument  and  the 
solution  examined.  It  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  zero  (0) 
point  on  the  scale  of  the  instrument  is  correct ;  this  is  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  tube  filled  with  pure  water. 

The  color  of  the  field  best  adapted  to  examine  the  solution 
depends  on  the  sensitiveness  of  the  eye.  Experience  has 
shown,  though,  that  a  yellow  field  is  the  most  sensitive. 

When  once  the  tints  of  the  two  halves  of  the  plate  are 
exactly  alike,  the  division  of  the  scale  corresponding  to  the 
vernier  is  read  oif,  and  the  corresponding  number  gives  the 
strength  of  the  solution. 

In  the  second  case,  that  is, 

TO  DETERMINE  THE  QUANTITY  OF  PURE  SUGAR  IN  A 
SOLUTION,  IRRESPECTIVE  OF  THE  QUANTITY  OF 
WATER  IN  IT. 

The  following  is  the  process  of  P.  Casamajor :  *  Two  cases 
may  present  themselves :  either  the  solution  is  light-colored 
enough  to  be  placed  in  the  saccharorneter,  or  it  is  dark  and 
needs  to  be  decolorized.  Suppose  a  solution  which,  after  dilu- 
tion, its  density  falls  between  5°  and  15°  Balling,  is  light-col- 
ored enough  to  go  into  the  saccharorneter.  First  place  the 
areometer  in  the  solution ;  suppose  that  it  indicates  14°. 3 ; 
next  place  in  the  solution  a  thermometer  which  will  indicate 
say  27-J°  C.,  and  note  that  the  excess  of  27^°  over  17^°  C.  is  10°. 

[NOTE. — The  indications  of  the  areometer  are  true :  for  the  temperature  of 
17^°  C.  and  for  any  other  temperature,  either  higher  or  lower,  we  must  con- 
sult the  table  for  "  correction  of  temperature,"  which  is  given  on  p.  482.] 

It  is  necessary  to  turn  now  to  the  Table  for  Correction  of 
Temperatures,  and  find  the  quantity  to  be  added  to  the  degrees 
Balling  as  27J°  >  17J°  =  +  10.  Opposite  10  in  the  table  is 

*  Amer.  Chem.,  Nov.  1873,  p.  161. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  481 

0.545,  which  we  add  to  14°.3  Balling  =  (14°.3  -f  0.545  = 
14°.845)  14°.84  comes  nearest  to  14.8  of  the  table  marked 
Duboscq,  and  opposite  to  14.8  is  1.043,  and  in  the  table 
marked  Ventzke,  1.659. 

Suppose  a  Yentzke  instrument  is  used,  and  the  solution 
indicates  43  per  cent. ;  by  multiplying  43%  by  1.659  =  71.33% 
gives  the  quantity  of  pure  sugar  in  the  dry  substance  of  the 
solution. 

If  the  solution  is  too  dark  to  be  used  in  the  saccharometer, 
it  must  be  decolorized.  The  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to  test 
the  solution  with  the  areometer  and  thermometer,  and  obtain 
the  rectified  degree  Balling  corresponding  to  17^°  C.  Op- 
posite to  this  degree  Balling  we  find  in  the  table  the  corre- 
sponding factor,  which  is  written  down  for  future  use. 

The  solution  is  next  clarified  by  adding  the  "  sodic  chloride 
solution  "  and  tri-plumbic  acetate.  The  total  addition  will  be 
10  per  cent,  of  the  volume  of  the  sugar  solution.  If  the  solu- 
tion is  light,  5  per  cent,  will  do.  As  this  addition  of  liquid 
weakens  the  saccharimetric  strength  of  the  solution  by  5  or 
10  per  cent.,  according  to  the  quantity  of  decolorizer  added, 
it  must  be  compensated  for  by  adding  5  or  10  per  cent,  to  the 
factor  written  down.  The  solution,  after  being  filtered,  is 
finally  placed  in  the  tube  of  the  saccharometer,  and  the  indica- 
tion of  the  instrument  is  multiplied  by  the  factor  obtained  by 
adding  5  or  10  per  cent,  to  the  factor  of  the  table. 

NUMERICAL  EXAMPLE. — Suppose  we  have  a  dark  solution.  After  being 
diluted  with  water,  it  is  tested  by  the  areometer  and  thermometer,  showing 
11° .4  Balling,  the  temperature  being  25*-°  C.  The  excess  of  25£°  over  17£° 
=  8.  Opposite  8  in  Table  for  Correction  of  Temperatures  we  find  0.436, 
which  is  added  to  11°.4  Balling  (11°.4  +  0.436  =  11.836).  Suppose  we  have 
a  Ventzke  instrument,  we  find  in  the  table  marked  Ventzke,  opposite  11.8 
(nearest  11.836),  2.107,  which  we  write  down.  The  solution  being  dart,  we 
add  10  per  cent,  of  clarifying  solution,  say  3  or  4  per  cent,  of  sodic  chlo- 
ride, and  the  balance  tri-plumbic  acetate  As  this  weakens  the  solution,  we 
compensate  for  it  by  adding  to  the  factor  2.107,  10  per  cent,  of  its  value  = 
0.2107,  which  gives  2.317.  The  solution,  after  being  clarified  by  filtration 
is  placed  in  the  saccharometer,  and  then  shows  say  22|  per  cent.  By  multi- 
plying 2.317  by  22|,  we  obtain  52.1,  which  is  the  percentage  of  pure  sugar 
in  the  dry  substance  of  the  solution. 


482 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


TABLES   FOR   THE   CORRECTION    OF  TEMPERATURES. 

.Difference     between  Quantity  to  be  added 

the  temperature  ob-  or  subtracted  from 

served  and  17^°  C.  degree  Balling. 

1 0.054 

2 0.109 

3 0.163 

4 0.218 

5 0.272 

6 0.327 

7 , 0.381 

8 0.436 

9 0.490 

10 0.545 

11 0.600 

12 0.654 

13 0.708 

14 0.762 

15  ..  .  0.817 


VENTZ  K  E. 


Table  of  factors,  corresponding  to  degrees  Balling,  to  be  multiplied  by  the 
indication  of  the  saccharometer. 


DEGREE 
BALLING. 

FACTOR. 

DEGREE 
BALLING. 

FACTOR. 

li 

FACTOR. 

K  0 

FACTOR. 

P5  £ 

FACTOR. 

5. 

5.107 

7. 

3.618 

9. 

2.792 

11. 

2.267 

13. 

1.902 

5.1 

5.013 

7.1 

3.568 

9.1 

2.762 

11.1 

2.246 

13.1 

1.887 

5.2 

4.920 

7.2 

3.519 

9.2 

2.731 

11.2 

2.225 

13.2 

1.873 

53 

4.826 

7.3 

3.470 

9.3 

2.700 

11.3 

2.204 

13.3 

1.858 

5.4 

4.733 

7.4 

3.420 

9.4 

2.670 

11.4 

2.184 

13.4 

1.844 

5.5 

4.639 

7.5 

3.371 

9.5 

2.640 

11.5 

2.163 

13.5 

1.829 

5.6 

4.559 

7.6 

3.328 

9.6 

2.612 

11.6 

2.144 

13.6 

1.815 

5.7 

4.479 

7.7 

3.281 

9.7 

2.585 

11.7 

2.125 

13.7 

1.801 

5.8 

4.399 

7.8 

3.240 

9.8 

2.558 

11.8 

2.107 

13.8 

1.787 

5.9 

4.319 

7.9 

3.197 

9.9 

2.530 

119 

2.088 

13.9 

1.773 

6. 

4.239 

8. 

3.154 

10. 

2.503 

12. 

2.069 

14. 

1.759 

6.1 

4.171 

8.1 

3.116 

10.1 

2.478 

12.1 

2.052 

14.1 

1.746 

6.2 

4.103 

8.2 

3.078 

10.2 

2.453 

12.2 

2.034 

14.2 

1.733 

6.3 

4.035 

8.3 

3.039 

10.3 

2.428 

12.3 

2.016 

14.3 

1.721 

6.4 

3.968 

8.4 

3.001 

10.4 

2.403 

12.4 

2.000 

14.4 

1.708 

6.5 

3.909 

8.5 

2.963 

10.5 

2.378 

12.5 

1.982 

14.5 

1.695 

6.6 

3.844 

8.6 

2.929 

10.6 

2.356 

126 

1.966 

14.6 

1.683 

6.7 

3.787 

8.7 

2.895 

10.7 

2.334 

12.7 

1.950 

14.7 

1.671 

6.8 

3.730 

8.8 

2.860 

10.8 

2.311 

12.8 

1.934 

14.8 

1.659 

6.9 

3.674 

8.9 

2.826 

10.9 

2.289 

12.9 

1.918 

14.9 

1.648 

15. 

1.638 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


483 


DUBOSCQ. 


Table  of  factors,  corresponding  to  degrees  Balling,  to  be  multiplied  Tyy  the 
indication  of  the  saccharometer. 


DEGREE 
BALLING. 

FACTOR. 

DEGREE 
BALLING. 

FACTOR. 

DEGREE  j 
BALLING. 

° 

A 

H  * 

W  ^ 
flp3 

to 

DEGREE 
BALLING. 

FACTOR. 

5. 

3.206 

7. 

2.271 

9. 

1.753 

11. 

1.423 

13. 

1.194 

5.1 

3.151 

7.1 

2.240 

9.1 

1.734 

11.1 

1.410 

13.1 

1.185 

5.2 

3.097 

7.2 

2.207 

9.2 

1.714 

11.2 

1.397 

13.2 

1.176 

5.3 

8.042 

7.3 

2.176 

9.3 

1.695 

11.3 

1.384 

13.3 

1.166 

5.4 

2.988 

7.4 

2.147 

9.4 

1.676 

11.4 

1.371 

13.4 

1.157 

5.5 

2.933 

7.5 

2.116 

9.5 

1.657 

11.5 

1.358 

13.5 

1.148 

5.6 

2.879 

7.6 

2.088 

9.6 

1.640 

11.6 

1346 

13.6 

1.139 

5.7 

2.824 

7.7 

2.061 

9.7 

1.622 

11.7 

1.33*4 

13.7 

1.130 

5.8 

2.770 

7.8 

2.034 

9.8 

1.605 

11JB 

1.323 

13.8 

1.122 

5.9 

2.715 

7.9 

2.007 

9.9 

1.588 

11.9 

1.311 

13.9 

1.113 

6. 

2.661 

8. 

1.980 

10. 

1.571 

12. 

1.299 

14. 

1.104 

6.1 

2.622 

8.1 

1.955 

10.1 

1.555 

12.1 

1.288 

14.1 

1.096 

6.2 

2.583 

8.2 

1.931 

10.2 

1.540 

12.2 

1.277 

14.2 

1.088 

6.3 

2.544 

8.3 

1.906 

10.3 

1.524 

12.3 

1.266 

14.3 

1.080 

6.4 

2,505 

8.4 

1.882 

10.4 

1.508 

12.4 

1.255 

14.4 

1.072 

6.5 

2.466 

8.5 

1.860 

10.5 

1.493 

12.5 

1.244 

14.5 

1.064 

6.6 

2.427 

8.6 

1.839 

10.6 

1.479 

12.6 

1.234 

14.6 

1.056 

6.7 

2.388 

8.7 

1.817 

10.7 

1.465 

12.7 

1.224 

14.7 

1.049 

6.8 

2.349 

8.8 

1.796 

10.8 

1.451 

12.8 

1.214 

14.8 

1.043 

6.9 

2,310 

8.9 

1.774 

10.9 

1.437 

12.9 

1.204 

14.9 

1.034 

15. 

1.027 

DETERMINATION    OF  THE  WATER    IN    SUGAR. 

There  are  two  methods  which  can  be  employed : 

(1.)  By  drying  the  sugar  near  the  point  of  caramelization ; 
i.  e.,  120°  to  130°,  the  loss  in  weight  will  equal  the  water. 
The  operation  requires  about  two  hours. 

(2.)  By  means  of  the  "  wrater  areometer."  The  following  is 
a  description  of  the  process  of  P.  Casamajor : 

To  determine  the  amount  of.  water  in  sugar :  Take  16.35 
grams  of  the  sugar  to  be  tested,  which  dissolve,  so  that  the 
solution  shall  occupy  100  c.c.  without  adding  tri-plumbic  ace- 
tate or  any  other  decolorizing  agent. 

After  shaking  up  thoroughly,  so  as  to  have  a  uniform  liquid, 
pour  some  of  it  into  a  glass  cylinder ;  put  an  areometer  into 
tjie  solution  and  note  the  division  to  which  it  sinks ;  also  note 


484 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


the  temperature  of  the  solution.  The  indications  of  the 
areometer  show  the  quantity  (provisional)  of  water  in  the  sugar 
tested,  if  the  temperature  is  17J°  C.  If  the  temperature  is 
not  1TJ°  C,  corrections  are  to  be  made  by  means  of  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


Degrees  Celsius, 
above  or  below 

Quantity  to  add 
when  below  and  to 
subtract  when 

Suppose  you  have  the  indication 
of  your  areometer  2.50  and  that  of 

17^  C. 

above  17*  C. 

the    thermometer   23^°   C.       Then 

23£  —  17!  =  6°-      Opposite  6°  you 

1 

0.36 

find  2.15.     The  amount  of  water  is 

2 

0.71 

2.50 

3 

1.07 

-  2.15 

4 

1.44 



5 

1.80 

Provisional,  0.35  per  cent. 

6 

2.15 

If  the   areometer  indicates  2.50 

7 

2.50 

and  the  thermometer   14°  C  ;    the 

8 

2.87 

difference    17*°      -    14°   =   31°,  to 

9 
10 

3.12 

3.48 

which  correspond  1.25,  average  of 

11 

3.84 

1.07 

12 

4.20 

1.44 

13 

4.55 

2)2.51 

14 

4.81 

1.25 

15 

5.16 

16 

5.52 

2.50  +  1.25  =  3.75  per  cent,  (pro- 

visional). 

There  is  another  correction  to  be  made  which  relates  to  the 
salts  contained  in  the  sugar.  Suppose  we  have  a  sugar  giving 
in  the  saccharometer  85  per  cent.  ;  the  water  areometer,  after 
correction  for  temperature,  giving  4  per  cent.  The  sugar  may 
be  provisionally  put  down : 


Saccharimetric  ...  85  per  cent. 

Water 4 

Impurities 11       " 


1 


Provisional. 


Casamajor  found,  by  comparing  a  large  number  of  tests  in 
which  he  determined  the  ashes,  that  ^  of  the  impurities  in 
cane-sugar  and  T^  in  beet-sugar  should  be  added  to  the  water 
as  found  abovea  to  correct  the  error  due  to  salts. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  485 

Thus,  in  the  above  example,  J-J^  =  0.55,  which,  when  added 
to  4,  makes  4.55  per  cent.  ;  therefore,  we  have — 

Saccharimetric 85  per  cent. 

Water 4.55 

Impurities 10.45       " 

100.00 

By  the  above  process  the  amount  of  water  may  be  deter- 
mined very  rapidly. 

If  it  is  desirous  to  determine  the  quantity  of  sugar,  using 
the  same  solution,  add  to  it  5  or  10  per  cent,  of  decolorizing 
material,  and  to  the  result  of  the  saccharometer  add  5  or  10 
per  cent,  to  counteract  for  the  dilution. 

DETERMINATION    OF    THE    SCALE    OF    THE    WATER 
AREOMETER. 

The  0  point  is  obtained  by  dissolving  16.35  grams  of  pure, 
dry  sugar  in  water,  so  that  the  solution  will  occupy  100  c.c. 
at  17^°  C.  The  next  point  to  be  determined  is  10  per  cent., 
which  is  easily  obtained  by  taking  90  c.c.  of  the  above  solu- 
tion and  diluting  with  pure  water  up  to  100  c.c.  This  second 
solution  at  17 J-°  C.  corresponds  to  a  sugar  having  10  per  cent, 
of  water.  Having  obtained  the  0  point,  as  also  the  10  per  cent, 
on  the  instrument,  the  space  may  be  divided  equally  between 
these  two  points  for  the  percentages.  The  points  obtained 
thereby  are  not  strictly  correct,  but  the  error  committed  is 
only  a  theoretical  one,  and  is  not  appreciable  on  such  an 
instrument. 

The  different  points  give  the  true  percentage  of  water  in  a 
sample  of  sugar  at  1TJ°  C.,  after  allowing  for  the  correction 
due  to  salts  mentioned  above.  At  any  other  temperature,  cor- 
rection must  be  made  as  above. 

DETERMINATION    OF  THE  ASH    IN    SUGARS. 

Weigh  out  9  grams  of  the  sugar,  to  be  examined  in  a 
platinum-dish,  and  add  four  drops  of  sulphuric  acid,  diluted 


486  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

in  about  2  centimeters  of  water.  The  platinum-dish  is  gently 
heated  at  first  to  prevent  bubbling  over,  and  finally  heated 
strongly  to  incinerate  the  carbon.  The  result  is  the  same  as 
taking  10  grams  and  deducting  a  tenth.* 


*  The  reason  for  deducting  one-tenth  is  to  counterbalance  the  additional 
weight  due  to  the  conversion  of  the  sugar-salts  into  sulphate  ;  it  is  entirely 
a  conventional  matter. 


I 


ASSAY    OF    IRON    ORES, 
DIRECTIONS  FOR  SELECTING  SAMPLES  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

Several  fragments  should  be  selected  from  different  parts  of 
the  vein  or  bed,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  fifty  or  sixty 
pounds.  Or  when  the  ore  has  been  mined  and  is  lying  in 
heaps,  several  shovels-full  of  ore,  coarse  and  fine,  should  be 
obtained,  so  as  to  procure  a  fair  average  of  the  whole ;  it  is 
also  better  to  select  from  different  parts  of  the  pile — a  keg-full 
in  all  is  sufficient.  A  few  ounces,  or  even  less,  is  all  that  is 
actually  required  for  the  analysis,  but  it  is  better  to  pulverize 
a  large  quantity  together,  and  the  portion  analyzed  is  a  much 
better  representation  of  the  mine  than  a  single  fragment  can  be. 

PREPARING   THE    SAMPLE    FOR  ANALYSIS. 

"  Break  up  in  an  iron  mortar  forty  or  fifty  pounds  of  the 
ore,  into  pieces  that  will  pass  through  a  tin  sieve  with  half- 
inch  holes.  Thoroughly  mix  the  fine  and  the  coarse.  Now 
break  tip  about  ten  pounds  of  average  quality,  so  that  it  will 
pass  through  a  sieve  made  of  tin  with  quarter-inch  holes. 
Mix  well,  take  one  pound  of  this,  and  pulverize  in  iron  mor- 
tar, until  it  will  pass  through  a  sieve  of  60  meshes  to  the  linear 
inch.  Mix  well,  take  out  about  50  grams,  pulverize  in  agate 
mortar,  pass  through  muslin  bolting-cloth,  and  put  into  a 
small  bottle,  tightly  corked,  for  analysis  and  special  determi- 
nations. Any  portion  of  this  taken  for  ASSAY  or  for  QUALI- 
TATIVE or  QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS,  must  be  pulverized  to  an 
impalpable  powder  in  an  agate  mortar." 

In  the  assay  of  IRON  OEES  it  is  necessary  to  slag  off  from 
the  iron  all  the  impurities,  so  that  the  iron  will  be  set  free  in 
a  pure  state.  The  formula  for  the  slag  must  be  =  K203.Si02 
+  2(3KO.Si02). 


490 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


Its  approximate  percentage  composition  is : 


Silica 38 

E2O3  (Alumina) 15 

BO  (CaO,  MgO,  etc.) 47 


or  about 


2-|  parts. 
1  part. 
3  parts. 


CHARGES   FOR   ORES  OF    UNKNOWN    COMPOSITION. 

1.  2.  3. 

Silica 2.5 1 4.0  grams. 

Lime 2.5  4 1.5      " 

Ore 10 10 10. 

It  is  necessary  to  make  two  assays  of  the  ore,  using  first 
charge  1,  then  charge  2,  etc. 

TO   CALCULATE  THE  CHARGE  WHEN  THE  COMPOSITION 
OF  THE   ORE    IS   KNOWN. 


The  ore  contains  — 

Per  cent. 

10  grams 
of  ore 
contain  — 

Required  to 
form  slag. 

Diiference  to 
be  added. 

Silica             

1.65 

0.165 

2.50 

2.335 

Alumina  

1.94 

0.194 

1.00 

0.806 

CaO  MgO  etc 

45.1 

0451 

3.00 

2.549 

Kaolin  is  used  as  a  means  to  furnish  alumina,  and  kaolin  is 
(A1203  \.  Si02  J).  Now,  since  0.806  alumina  must  be  added  to 
charge  to  form  the  proper  slag,  twice  as  much  kaolin  must  be 
used,  as  only  one-half  of  the  kaolin  is  alumina.  Therefore, 
.806  x  2  =  1.612  grams  of  kaolin  to  be  added.  But  in  add- 
ing 1.612  grams  of  kaolin,  0.806  gram  of  Si02  is  added 
because  half  of  the  kaolin  is  Si02.  Therefore  0.806  grams 
must  be  subtracted  from  the  amount  of  Si02  to  be  added. 
2.335  grams  —  0.806  grams  =  1.529  grams  Si02  to  be  added. 

The  charge  is  therefore : 

Ore 10.  grains. 

Silica 1.529  grams. 

Kaolin 1.612      " 

Lime. .  2.549      " 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


491 


The  above  example  was  where  the  ore  did  not  contain  suffi- 
cient Si02  to  form  the  required  slag.  The  following  is  an 
example  of  an  ore  containing  too  much  Si02  '• 


The  ore  contains  — 

Per  cent. 

30  grams 
of  ore 
contain— 

Required. 

To  be 
added. 

Silica  

2596 

2596 

250 

0096 

Alumina  .  .      .        .        

G92 

0692 

1  00 

0308 

CaO  MgO,  etc  

759 

0759 

300 

2241 

To  add  0.308  of  A1203,  twice  0.308  or  0.616  of  kaolin  must 
be'  added.  In  adding  0.616  kaolin,  0.308  Si02  is  added. 
Therefore,  since  there  is  already  0.096  Si02  too  much,  there 
will  be  0.096  +  0.308  or  0.404  Si02  too  much,  and  this  amount 
must  be  treated  so  that  it  wTill  form  a  slag. 


Constituents. 

Excess. 

Required. 

Difference  to  be 
added. 

Silica  

0.404 

2.50 

2.096 

AluminS) 

1  00 

1  000 

CaO   MgO    etc  

3  00 

3  000 

Now  in  adding  1.000  gram  of  A1203  two  grams  of  kaolin 
must  be  added,  and  in  adding  two  grams  of  kaolin  one  gram 


of  Si02  is  added  ; 


therefore  this  amount  of  Si02  must  be  sub- 


tracted from  the  amount  of  Si02  necessary  to  add,  which  is 
2.096;  /.  2.096  —  1.000  =  1.096. 

The  charge  is  therefore  : 

Ore 10  grains. 

Silica 1.096  grams. 

Kaolin 0.616  +  2.000  =  2.616  grams. 

Lime 2.241  +  3.000  =  5.241 

To  add  Si02,  ground  quartz  is  used.  Ores  containing 
titanium  require  the  addition  of  fluor-spar,  0.5  to  10  grams, 
according  to  the  amount  of  titanium  that  is  present. 


492  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


PREPARING    THE    CRUCIBLE. 

The  crucible  used  is  a  Hessian  crucible.  They  are  filled 
with  brasque.  Brasque  in  this  case  is  four  parts  of  pulverized 
charcoal  to  one  part  of  molasses.  This  is  thoroughly  kneaded 
until  a  ball  of  it,  made  in  the  hands,  resists  to  a  sensible 
degree  an  attempt  to  pull  it  apart. 

The  crucibles  are  packed  full  by  driving  the  brasque  in  with 
a  mallet;  a  conical-shaped  cavity  of  sufficient  size  for  the 
charge  is  cut  out  of  the  brasque  with  a  knife,  and  the  cavity 
on  the  inside  polished  with  a  strong  glass,  tube.  The  crucible 
is  then  dried  by  a  fire  (must  not  be  heated  too  high). 

PREPARING    CHARGE. 

The  charge  is  weighed  out  and  thoroughly  mixed  on  glazed 
paper,  then  put  into  the  crucible.  The  top  of  the  conical  cavity 
is  then  covered  with  a  piece  of  charcoal,  and  then  the  whole 
top  of  the  crucible  is  covered  with  a  coating  of  fire-clay  (fire- 
clay with  one-fourth  to  one-half  part  of  fine  sand  and  a  little 
hair,  thoroughly  kneaded).  The  outside  of  the  crucible  is  also 
covered  with  fire-clay  (very  thin  coating),  and  then  the  cruci- 
ble is  luted  on  a  fire-brick  and  thoroughly  dried  before  putting 
it  into  the  furnace.  The  fire  should  be  kept  up  in  the  furnace 
between  four  and  5  hours,  with  anthracite  coal. 

Duplicate  assays  should  not  vary  more  than  0.3-0.4  of  one 
per  cent. 

The  button  should  be  gray  or  grayish-white,  the  grain  fine, 
or  tolerably  so.  PHOSPHORUS  in  the  ore  makes  the  button  cold- 
short— hard,  brittle,  and  a  white  metal.  SULPHUR  makes  the 
button  strong  reticulated — mottled  structure,  and  red-short. 

MANGANESE  gives  a  button  with  a  smooth  surface,  hard  and 
non-graphitic;  it  presents  a  white  crystalline  fracture.  The 
slag  obtained  has  an  amethyst  color,  or  yellow,  green,  and 
brown  when  manganese  is  present  in  excess. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  493 

CHEOMILTM  gives  a  smooth  button,  "  well  fused,  with  a  brilliant 
crystalline  fracture,  and  tin-white  color ;  at  other  times  it  is 
white  and  only  half-fused,  or  it  may  even  form  a  spongy  mass 
of  a  clear  gray  color,  according  to  the  quantity  of  chromium 
contained  in  the  iron.  The  slag  is  dark  and  resinous,  sur- 
rounded with  a  thin  metallic  coating." 

"  TITANIUIVI  gives  a  button  with  a  smooth  surface ;  has  a  deep 
gray  fracture,  dull  and  crystalline,  and  adheres  strongly  to  the 
slag.  The  button  is  sometimes  covered  with  the  nitro-cyanide 
of  titanium  with  its  characteristic  copper  color.  The  slag  is 
resinous,  black,  and  scoriaceous,  curiously  wrinkled  on  the  out- 
side, and  covered  with  metallic  pellicles  of  nitro-cyanide  of 
titanium  with  its  characteristic  copper  color;  sometimes  the 
slag  is  vitreous  and  of  a  bluish  tint." 

The  following  is  a  comparison  between  the  results  obtained 
by  analysis  and  fire-assay,  by  Ricketts  :* 

Ore.  Iron  by  Analysis.  By  Fire  Assay. 

Magnetite. 68.35  per  cent 69.6    71.2    71 .3  per  cent. 

Hematite 44,50    "      "      44.6    46.0    48.6    "      " 

Limonite 44.20    "     "      44.3    44.6    45.2    "      " 

*  "  Notes  on  Assaying,"  Ricketts,  p.  89. 


494:  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


ASSAY    OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER.* 

The  assay  of  gold  and  silver  will  comprise :  I.  ASSAY  OF 
OKES;  II.  ASSAY  OF  ALLOYS. 

I.    ASSAY    OF    ORES. 
PREPARATION  OF  THE  SAMPLE. 

It  is  essential,  in  the  first  place,  to  obtain  a  fair  average 
sample  of  the  ore,  otherwise  the  results  of  the  assay  may  be 
commercially  worthless.  Selection  must  be  left  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  assay er.  The  sample  must  be  dried,  if  necessary ; 
care  being  taken  not  to  roast  it.  It  must  then  be  pounded  in 
an  iron  mortar,  and  passed  through  a  sieve  of  eighty  meshes 
to  the  linear  inch.  If  any  native  metal,  in  the  form  of  scales 
or  filaments,  remain  upon  the  sieve,  take  the  weight,  separately, 
of  what  has  passed  through  and  of  what  is  left  upon  the  sieve. 
The  latter  must  be  assayed  according  to  "  Assay  of  Alloys," 
and  the  result  referred  to  the  whole  amount  of  ore.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  whole  of  the  sample,  except  the  malleable  portion, 
be  passed  through  the  sieve.  Mix  thoroughly  the  sifted  ore. 

The  collection  of  the  gold  and  silver  in  a  button  of  metallic 
lead  is  effected  in  a  crucible,  or  in  a  scorifier,  whence  arise  two 
methods  of  assay :  I.  CRUCIBLE  ASSAY;  II.  SCOKIFICATION  ASSAY. 

The  crucible  assay  is  applicable  to  all  ores ;  the  latter  is  limit- 
ed, practically,  by  the  small  size  of  scorifiers,  to  the  richer  ores. 

I.    CRUCIBLE    ASSAY. 

An  ore  of  gold  and  silver  is  composed  of  precious  metal, 
gangue,  and  oxides,  sulphides,  etc.,  of  foreign  metals. 

To  collect  the  precious  metals  in  a  button  of  lead,  the  ore  is 
mixed  with  litharge,  suitable  fluxes,  an  oxidizing  or  a  reducing 
agent,  and  fused  in  a  Hessian  crucible.  Litharge  is  reduced 
to  metallic  lead ;  the  latter  seizes  upon  the  previous  metals 
and  collects  in  a  button  at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible,  while 
the  foreign  materials  form,  with  the  fluxes,  a  fusible  slag  above 
the  lead  button. 

*  See  Amer.  Chem.,  1870— Articles  by  T.  M.  Blossom,  E.M. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  495 

The  crucible  is  broken  when  cold,  and  the  malleable  button 
detached  from  the  slag  by  hammering  on  an  anvil.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  necessary  reagents : 

REAGENTS. 

Litharge,  Carbonate  of  Soda  or  of  Potash, 

Nitre,  Argol  (crude  bitartrate  of  potash), 

Charcoal,  Borax  Glass, 

Silica,  Common  Salt. 
Carbonate  of  Ammonia, 

The  reagents  must  be  finely  pulverized  and  dried,  and  kept 
in  closed  vessels. 

Borax  should  be  fused  to  a  glass  and  pulverized. 

PRELIMINARY    ASSAYS    OF    REAGENTS. 

Ordinary  commercial  litharge  always  contains  silver ;  so  it 
becomes  necessary  to  determine  in  each  new  lot  the  amount 
of  silver  contained,  for  deduction  from  the  silver  found  in  the 
regular  assay  of  an  ore. 

There  must  also  be  determined,  beforehand,  the  reducing 
powers  of  argol  and  charcoal,  and  the  oxidizing  power  of  nitre. 
This  necessity  arises  from  the  impurity  of  the  reagents.  By 
reducing  power  is  meant  the  amount  of  metallic  lead  that  one 
gram  of  the  reagent  will  reduce  from  litharge ;  and  by  oxidizing 
power,  the  amount  of  metallic  lead  that  one  gram  of  nitre  will 
oxidize.  The  following  are  the  charges  for  the  preliminary 
assay : 

I.    REDUCING    POWER. 
ARGOL.  CHARCOAL. 

Argol 2  grams.  Charcoal 1  gram. 

Litharge .2  A.T.*  Litharge 2  A.T. 

Carb.  Soda i  A.T.  Carb.  Soda 1  A.T. 

Salt  to Cover.  Salt Cover. 

*  A.T.  means  ASSAY  TON.     It  is  obtained  as  follows  : 
1  Av.  Ib.  contains  7000  grains  =  16  Av.  oz.     1  oz.  =  437|-  grains. 
1   Troy  Ib.   contains  5760  grains  =  12  oz.    Troy.    1   Troy  oz.  contains 
480  grains. 


496  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

OXIDIZING  POWER.  SILVER  IN  LITHARGE. 

Nitre 3  grams.  Litharge 4  A.T. 

Charcoal 1  gram.  Carb.  Soda 2  A.T. 

Litharge 2  A.T.  Charcoal 1  gram. 

Carb.  Soda i  A.T.  Salt Cover. 

Salt Cover. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  the  reducing  power  of  the  ore  to  be 
assayed;  therefore  a  PRELIMINARY  ASSAY  is  made. 

CHARGE. 

Ore 2  grams. 

Litharge 25 

Carb.  Soda 10      " 

Salt Cover. 

The  reducing  power  of  an  ore  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
sulphur,  arsenic,  antimony,  zinc,  etc.,  but  generally  sulphur 
contained  in  the  pyrites,  etc.  It  is  necessary,  if  possible,  to 
determine  from  the  mineralogical  composition  of  the  ore  to  be 
assayed,  if  it  is  rich  or  poor.  If  rich,  ^  A.T.,  or  J,  -J,  -fa  A.T.,  is 
taken.  If  the  ore  is  poor,  1  A.T.  or  2  A.T.  is  taken. 

From  the  preliminary  assay  of  reagents  we  have  found: 

One  gram  of  nitre  will  oxidize  5.4  grams  of  lead  (about). 

One  gram  of  charcoal  will  reduce  24  grams  of  lead  (about). 

And  from  the  preliminary  assay  of  the  ore  we  found  that 
2  grams  of  ore  gave  a  button  of  lead  weighing  3  grams. 

METHOD    OF    CALCULATING    CHARGES. 

EXAMPLE. — Ore  pretty  rich. 

J  A.T.  will  be  taken  of  the  ore. 

Reducing  power  found  2  grams  of  ore  =  3  grams  of  lead. 

2  grams  =  3  grams  Pb. 
1  gram  =  1.5  grams  Pb. 

1  ton  contains  2000  Ibs.  (2240).  2000  Ibs.  x  7000  gr.  =  14000,000  grains  in 
one  ton.  . 

14000000  -4-  480  =  29166 1  Troy  ounces  in  a  ton  of  2000  Ibs. 

0.001  gram  —  1  milligram  =  1  Assay  Ounce. 

29166|  -f- 1000  =  29.166|  grams  =  1  ASSAY  TON  =  1  A.T. 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  497 

1  AT.  is  taken  as  30  grams  for  convenience.  J  A.T.  of  ore 
taken. 

30  4-  2  =  15 ;     15  x  1.5  =  22.5  grams. 

A  cupel  should  not  be  made  to  hold  a  button  weighing 
more  than  18  grams ;  and  this  button,  22.5  grams,  is  too  large ; 
it  must  be  reduced  by  oxidation. 

22.5  — 18  =  4.5  grams  too  large. 
Oxidizing  power  of  nitre  =  5.4. 

/.     4.5  grams  -~-  5.4  grams  =  .83  grams  nitre  required. 

The  charge  is  therefore : 

Ore £A.T. 

Litharge 1     " 

Carb.  Soda £    " 

Nitre 83  grams. 

Salt Cover. 

In  the  above  charge  we  see  that  1  A.T.  of  litharge  and  ^  A.T. 
were  taken.  The  rule  is  to  take  twice  as  much  litharge  as  ore, 
and  the  same  amount  of  carbonate  of  soda  as  ore.  The  salt 
cover  is  used,  as  its  name  implies,  to  cover  the  charge  in  the 
crucible.  It  also  serves  to  wash  down  the  sides  of  the  crucible, 
if  the  charge  boils  up. 

The  above  charge  is  put  into  a  Hessian  crucible,  and  the  latter 
put  into  the  furnace,  covered  over,  on  top  of  a  brick  laid  on 
the  bottom.  The  crucible  is  left  in  the  furnace  equal  times  to 
and  from  fusion.  That  is,  if  it  takes  ten  minutes  to  promote 
fusion  of  the  charge  (the  knowledge  of  which  may  be  obtained 
by  lifting  the  cover  off  the  crucible  and  looking  in),  the  cruci- 
ble is  left  in  the  furnace  ten  minutes  longer. 

The  above  ore  treated  was  a  rich  ore ;  the  following  will  be 
a  poor  ore : 

EXAMPLE. — Ore  is  poor.  1  A.T.  must  be  taken.  Reducing 
power  of  ore,  2  grams  of  ore  =  .35  gram  of  lead. 

2  =  .35  :         /.         1  =  .175. 


498  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

1  A.T.  =  30  grams.         /.     30  x  .175  =  5.25  grams. 
Button  wanted  must  weigh  18  grams. 

18  —  5.25  =  12.75  grams  too  small. 
1  gram  charcoal  =  24  grams  Pb. 

24  -T-  12.75  =  J  gram  (about)  of  charcoal  must 
be  added  to  charge. 

The  charge,  then,  is : 

Ore 1A.T. 

Litharge 2    " 

Garb.  Soda I    " 

Charcoal -|  gram. 

Salt Cover. 

ORES    TO    BE    ROASTED. 

Ores  containing  a  large  amount  of  sulphur  or  arsenic,  anti- 
mony or  zinc,  should  always  be  roasted. 

ROASTING    THE    ORE. 

The  ore  may  be  roasted  in  a  cast-iron  pan,  a  common  spider, 
over  the  crucible  furnace.  There  ought  to  be  a  hood  over  the 
furnace  to  carry  off  the  fumes.  The  pan  should  be  covered 
with  chalk  on  the  inside  ;  an  even  coating  may  be  made  with 
chalk  paste,  then  dried  over  the  fire.  The  coating  prevents  a 
loss  of  ore. 

The  weighed  sample  of  ore  must  be  spread  over  the  pan  and 
stirred,  while  heated  with  a  bent  wire  until  all  fumes  are 
driven  off. 

Ores  roasted  have  no  reducing  power ;  then  enough  charcoal 
must  be  added  to  reduce  from  the  lead  a  button  weighing 
18  grams.  1  gram  charcoal  =  24  grams  lead.  For  18  grams, 
therefore,  .555  gram  of  charcoal  must  be  added. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  499 


II.    SCORIFICATION    ASSAY. 

The  reagents  necessary  for  a  scorification  assay  are  test-lead 
and  borax  glass.  The  ore  is  mixed  with  these,  put  into  a 
scorifier,  and  fused  in  a  muffle. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  proportions  found  by  expe- 
rience to  be  best  adapted  to  the  diiferent  gangues.  The  pro- 
portions are  referred  to  one  part  of  ore : 

Character  of  Gangue.  Parts  Test-lead.  Parts  Borax. 

Quartzose 8  

Basic  (Fe203,  A1203,  CaO,  etc.) 8  0.25—1.00 

Galena 5—6  0.15 

Arsenical 16  0.10—0.50 

Antimonial 16  0.10—1.00 

Fahlerz , 12—16  0.10—0.15 

Iron  pyrites 10—15  0.10—0.20 

Blende 10—15 0.10—0.20 

No  preliminary  roasting  of  ore  is  required.  The  scorifier  is 
gently  heated  at  first,  and  then  highly  heated,  until  the  button 
of  lead  on  the  surface  of  the  charge  has  disappeared,  when  it 
is  taken  out  of  the  muffle. 

Charge  of  ore  is  generally  ^,  J,  or  ^  of  an  assay  ton. 


CALCULATING    CHARGE. 

EXAMPLE. — Suppose  the  ore  is  rich  (take  \  AT.)  and  gangue 
antimonial.  1  A.T.  =  30 ;  \  A.T.  —  10. 

We  see  by  table,  for  ores  having  antimonial  gangue,  use 
16  parts  of  test-lead  and  0.10-1.00  of  borax  =  .5  (average). 
Therefore,  16  x  10  =  160  Pb,  and  .5  x  10  =  5  of  borax. 

Charge  is  therefore : 

Ore iA.T. 

Test-lead 160  grams. 

Borax. 5      " 


500  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

GALENA— SPECIAL    METHOD. 

It  is  best  and  most  convenient  always  to  make  a  scorification 
assay  of  galena.  If,  however,  it  be  desirable  for  any  reason  to 
make  a  crucible  assay,  a  CHARGE  of  nitre,  20  grams  per  assay 
ton  of  ore  used,  and  the  same  weight  of  carbonate  of  soda  as  of 
ore  used. 

CUPELLATION. 

The  lead  button  to  be  cupelled  must  be  malleable,  and  the 
proper  size  for  the  cupel,  about  12  to  15  grams.  The  cupel  is 
made  of  bone-ash,  and  weighs  18  grams ;  it  absorbs  the  scoriae, 
leaving  a  pure  bead  of  precious  metal.  The  cupel  must  be 
carefully  dried  before  use,  and  must  be  free  from  cracks,  which 
would  cause  a  loss  of  precious  metal.  The  bottom  of  the 
muffle  should  be  covered  with  sand,  to  prevent  injury  to  it  by 
upsetting  a  cupel. 

Before  introducing  the  button  to  be  cupelled,  the  muffle,  as 
also  the  cupel,  should  be  at  a  reddish-white  heat.  The  button 
melts,  and  gradually  diminishes  in  size  by  oxidation  and 
absorption.  When  the  bead  becomes  dull,  then  bright,  resem- 
bling precious  metal,  the  cupel  must  be  withdrawn,  but  very 
gradually,  to  the  front  of  the  muffle,  where  it  must  be  covered 
over  with  an  inverted  cupel,  and  then  the  whole  is  withdrawn 
and  placed  one  side  to  cool.  The  beads  of  gold  and  silver, 
when  cold,  is  removed  from  the  cupel,  washed  and  weighed. 
(The  balance  used  for  weighing  must  weigh  down  to  one-tenth 
of  a  milligram.) 

INQUARTATION    AND    PARTING. 

The  separation  of  gold  from  silver  is  called  parting.  To 
dissolve  the  bead  in  nitric  acid,  the  silver  must  be  2.5-3  times 
the  amount  of  gold. 

N.B. — The  assayer  must  judge  from  the  color  of  the  bead  if  there  is 
enough  silver  present ;  if  not,  he  must  add  some  to  it  by  fusion  with  a 
blowpipe.  This  addition  of  silver  is  best  done  on  charcoal. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  501 

The  inquartated  bead  is  flattened  on  the  anvil,  and  treated 
in  a  porcelain  capsule  with  nitric  acid,  1.16  sp.  gr.  (21°  B.). 
It  is  heated  a  little,  until  all  the  silver  is  dissolved  from  the 
button,  when,  if  gold  is  present,  it  will  be  left  as  a  brown 
powder,  undissolved.  (Acid  must  be  free  from  all  traces  of 
chlorine.)  The  gold  residue  is  thoroughly  washed  with  dis- 
tilled water,  detached  by  the  knife,  transferred  to  a  cornet  of 
lead,  and  cupelled.  The  gold  bead  obtained  is  weighed,  and 
the  ASSAY  is  COMPLETED.  It  remains  only  to  calculate  the 
results. 

CALCULATION    OF    RESULTS.* 

Every  milligram  of  precious  metal  obtained  per  assay  ton 
of  ore  corresponds  to  ounces  in  the  ton  of  2000  Ibs.  Av. 

EXAMPLE. — Suppose  that  the  sample  presented  for  assay 
gave,  on  being  pulverized  and  passed  through  the  sieve  of 
80  meshes  to  linear  inch,  the  following  weights : 

A.  Sifted  ore 1458.32  grams. 

B.  Scales  of  metal 40.75      " 

C.  Total 1499.07      " 

It  being  known  from  the  mineralogical  composition  of  the 
sample  that  it  was  a  rich  ore,  ^  A.T.  was  taken  for  an  assay  of 
the  sifted  portion  (A).  The  residue  of  metallic  scales,  etc.  (B), 
was  scorified  with  test-lead,  and  yielded  a  button  weighing 
60.35  grams.  This  button  was  rolled  out,  and  two  average 
samples  of  10  grams  each  were  cupelled. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  from  the  complete 
assays : 

A.— SIFTED    ORE— CRUCIBLE  ASSAY. 
One-third  assay  ton,  9.722  grams  yielded : 

1.  2.  Average. 

Au  +  Ag 0.19355  0.19275  0.19315 

Au  (by  parting) 0.00025  0.00025  0.00025 

Ag 0.19330  0.19250  0.19290 

*  See  Amer.  Chem.,  1870— Article  by  Blossom. 


502  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

1.                                      2.  Average. 

Ag 0.19330     0.19250     0.19290 

Ag  in  litharge* 0.00067     0.00067     0.00067 

Agin  ore 0.19263     0.19183     0.19223 


B.— METALLIC   SCALES. 
10  grams  of  the  scorified  button  yielded : 

1.                                    2.  Average. 

Au  +  Ag 5.0625     5.0620     5.0622 

Au  (by  parting) 0.0020 0.0020     0.0020 

Ag 5.0605     5.0600     5.0602 

Ag  in  test-lead None None None. 


A.  Sifted  ore  (in  all)  ....     1458.32  x  -  =  28.819  Ag. 

.'.  i  '-  ~ 

K  ftfJAO 

B.  Metallic  scales  (in  all)        40.75  =  ^~  x  60.35  =  30.538  Ag. 


Total  ore  ............     1499.07      ...............     59.357,  Total  Ag. 


1  A.T.  =  29.166666.        /.        29166.66  =  milligrams  in  1  A.T. 


29166.66  x  =  1154.71  oz.  per  2000  Ib. 

1499.07 


A.  Sifted  ore  .............  1458.32  x  =  0.0375  Au. 

B.  Metallic  scales  .........     40.75  =  5         x  60.35  =  0.0121  Au. 


C.    Total  .................  1499.07  0.0496  T'l  Au. 

29166.66  x  1°:^9n6,,  =  0.97  oz.  per  2000  Ibs. 


RESULT  PEK  2000  LBS.  OKE. 

Silver 1154.71  oz.  @$  1.29 $1,489.58 

Gold 0.97  oz.  @  $20.67 $     20.04 

Total  bullion. .    .  1155.97  oz $1,509.62 


*  The  litharge  yielded  one  milligram  of  silver  per  assay  ton,  and  two- 
thirds  assay  ton  of  it  was  employed. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  503 

ASSAY   OF   ALLOYS. 
I.   SILVER   COIN    AND    BULLION. 

The  form  of  assay  used  for  silver  coin  and  bullion  is  that 
known  as  Gay-Lussac's  Wet  Method,  which  consists  in  deter- 
mining the  fineness  of  the  alloy  by  the  quantity  of  a  standard 
solution  of  common  salt  necessary  to  precipitate,  fully  and  ex- 
actly, the  silver  contained  in  a  known  weight  of  alloy. 

Process  embraces  two  steps : 

A,  Preliminary  Assay,  and  B,  Assay  Proper.  The  latter 
requires  for  its  conduction  the  preparation  of  three  solutions, 
called  Normal  Salt,  Decime  Salt,  and  Decime  /Silver. 

Normal  Salt  Solution. — This  is  a  solution  of  common  salt 
of  such  a  strength  that  100  c.  c.  will  exactly  precipitate  one 
gram  of  silver.  It  is  prepared  as  follows:  Make  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  salt  in  water ;  take  10  c.c.  and  evaporate  to 
dryness  in  a  weighed  porcelain  capsule,  and  weigh ;  the  in- 
crease of  weight  will  equal  the  amount  of  salt  in  10  c.c. ;  mul- 
tiply this  result  by  10,  and  it  will  equal  the  amount  of  salt  in 
100  c.c.  of  solution.  Suppose  that  100  c.c.  of  the  concentrated 
salt  solution  contains  35  grams  of  salt.  Suppose  45  litres  of 
the  normal  salt  solution  is  required.  If  the  salt  were  pure : 

At.  Wt.  Ag.     At.  Wt.  NaCl. 

108  :  58.5  :  :  45  x  10  :  x  =  243.75  grams  = 
weight  of  pure  salt  required.  But  on  evaporation  of  100  c.c. 
of  solution,  only  35  grams  of  salt  were  obtained ;  therefore, 
pure  salt  (243.75  -r-  35)  x  100  =  696.29  =  number  of  cubic 
cent,  salt  solution  required  for  45  litres  of  water.  Since  in 
adding  the  salt  solution  we  also  add  696.29  c.c.  of  water,  there- 
fore, 45  litres  —  696.29  c.c.,  or  44  litres  304  c.c.  of  water  must 
be  added. 

Decime  Salt  Solution. — This  is  a  solution  of  common  salt 
only  one-tenth  the  strength  of  the  former  ;  i.e.,  100  c.  c.  will 


504  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

exactly  precipitate  0.1  gram,  1  c.c.  will  precipitate  1  milligram 
of  silver.  The  solution  is  made  by  diluting  the  normal  salt 
solution  with  8  parts  of  pure  water. 

Decime  Silver  Solution. — Dissolve  1  gram  of  pure  silver  in 
nitric  acid,  and  dilute  to  a  litre ;  1  c.c.  of  the  solution  will  con- 
tain 1  milligram  of  pure  silver. 

The  decime  silver  solution  is  equivalent  to  the  decline  salt 
solution  ;  i.e.,  if  mixed  in  equal  quantities,  they  will  mutually 
suffer  complete  decomposition. 

The  normal  salt  solution,  after  being  prepared,  is  tested  and 
accurately  standardized.  In  three  bottles  of  250  c.c.  capacity 
(8  oz.),  1  gram  of  silver  is  dissolved  (in  each)  in  nitric  acid, 
and  the  whole  largely  diluted  with  water;  then  100  c.c.  of 
normal  salt  solution  is  allowed  to  pass  into  the  bottle,  when 
chloride  of  silver  is  precipitated ;  the  bottle,  being  closed  by 
a  well-fitting  glass-stopper,  is  shaken  for  quite  a  while ;  if  the 
solution  is  clear  on  standing,  the  normal  solution  is  of  the  right 
strength,  unless,  by  adding  some  of  the  decime  salt  solution,  a 
precipitate  is  produced ;  add  2  thousandths  of  the  decirae  salt 
solution,  agitate  as  before,  and  when  solution  becomes  clear, 
add  again  2  thousandths  decime  salt,  and  repeat  the  operation 
until  a  precipitate  fails  to  appear.  Suppose  there  have  been 
added  16  thousandths.  The  last  two  produced  no  precipitate 
and  are  not  counted.  The  two  preceding  thousandths  were 
only  needed  in  part,  so  that  the  acting  thousandths  were  above 
12  and  below  14  =  13  in  number.  Thus,  1013  parts  of  normal 
solution  are  required  to  precipitate  1  gram  of  silver,  while  only 
1000  parts  or  100  c.c.  should  be  required.  The  solution  is  too 
weak,  and  the  quantity  of  salt  solution  to  be  added  may  be 
found  by  considering  that  696.29  c.c.  have  produced  a  standard 
of  only  1000-13  or  98  Y  thousandths.  It  remains  to  provide 
for  the  13  thousandths.  The  additional  quantity  of  salt  solu- 
tion required  is  found  as  follows : 

987  :  696.29  : :  13  :  x  =  9.2  c.c.  of  concentrated  solution  to 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


505 


be  added.     After  this  is  added,  the  solution  is  tested  the  same 
as  before. 

A.— PRELIMINARY    ASSAY. 

Weigh  out  one  gram  of  the  alloy  and  wrap  it  in  a  sheet  of 
lead  (one  sheet  of  lead  about  two  inches  square,  weighing 
Ty^  ounces,  or  5.287  grams),  and  cupel  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
Suppose  a  button  oft  silver  is  obtained  weighing  0.8695  grams; 
then — 


Gram. 


0.8695  : :  1000  :  x  =  869.5  =  approximate  fineness. 


This  must  be  corrected  for  the  unavoidable  losses  of  a  fire- 
assay  (Table  from  Mitchell).  The  corrections  are  given  in 
thousandths,  and  are  in  all  cases  to  be  added  to  the  standards, 
of  cupellation. 


TABLE  OF  CORRECTIONS  FOR  LOSS  IN  CUPELLATION. 


STANDARD. 

CORRECTION. 

STANDARD. 

CORRECTION. 

STANDARD. 

CORRECTION^ 

998.97 

1.03 

645.29 

4.71 

297.40 

2.60 

973.24 

1.76 

620.30 

4.70 

272.42 

2.58 

947.50 

2.50 

595.32 

4.68 

247.44 

2.56 

921.75 

3.25 

570.32 

4.68 

222.45 

255 

896.00 

4.00 

545.32 

4.68 

197.47 

2.55 

870.93 

4.07 

520.32 

468 

173.88 

2.12 

845.85 

4.13 

495.32 

4.68  ' 

148.30 

1.70 

820.78 

4.22 

470.50 

4.50 

123.71 

1.29 

795.70 

4.30 

445.69 

4.31 

99.12 

0.88 

770.59 

4.41 

420.87 

4.13 

74.34 

0.66 

745.38 

4.52 

396.05 

3.95 

49.56 

0.44 

720.36 

4.64 

371.39 

3.61 

27.78 

0.22 

695.25 

4.75 

346.73 

3.27 

670.27 

4.73 

322.06 

2.94 

The  number  in  the  column  of  standards  next  nearest  to 
869.5  is  870.93,  and  the  corresponding  correction  is  4.07 ;  add- 
ing this  to  869.5  we  obtain  873.57  for  the  true  approximate 
fineness. 


.506  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

B.— ASSAY    PROPER. 

Take  such  a  weight  of  the  alloy  as  will  contain  one  gram 
of  pure  silver.  This  is  found  from  the  approximate  fineness 
by  the  following  proportions  : 

8T3.5T  :  1000  : :  1  :  x  =  1.145  grams. 

Put  this  amoimt  in  an  8  oz.  stoppered  bottle  and  dissolve  it 
in  nitric  acid.  Add  100  c.c.  of  normal  salt  solution,  and  pro- 
ceed the  same  as  in  testing  normal  salt  solution  until  the 
decime  salt  fails  to  give  a  precipitate.  Suppose  six  thousandth 
of  the  decime  salt  solution  were  added ;  the  last  gave  no  pre- 
cipitate, so  that  more  than  4  and  less  than  5  or  4.5  thousandths 
are  required.  Add  1.5  thousandths  of  decline  silver  solution ; 
this  will  decompose  1.5  thousandths  of  the  decime  salt,  which 
was  added  in  excess ;  it  is  known  that  4  thousandths  decime 
salt  were  wholly  required ;  the  fifth  gave  a  precipitate,  but 
was  only  required  in  part ;  the  1.5  thousandth  decime  silver 
added  will  decompose  1.5  thousandths  decime  salt ;  add  now 
0.5  thousandths  decime  silver;  if  a  precipitate  is  produced, 
between  4  and  4.5  or  4.25  thousandths  decime  salts  were 
required.  If  no  precipitate  was  found  on  the  addition  of  the 
0.5  decime  silver  solution,  4.5  would  thus  be  proved  correct. 
Suppose,  however,  that  a  precipitate  had  been  obtained,  the 
number  of  thousandth  normal  salt  solution  would  be  1000 
(100  c.c.)*  +  4.25  decime  =  1004.25 ;  i.  e.,  the  weight  of  alloy 
taken  contained  exactly  1004.25  milligrams,  equal  to  1.00425 
grams  of  fine  silver.  The  fineness  is  given  by  the  following 
proportion : 

1.145  :  1.00425  : :  1000  :  x  =  877.07  (fineness). 

The  pieces  of  apparatus  peculiar  and  most  essential  to  the 
.assay  of  silver  coin  and  bullion  are  the  reservoir  for  contain- 


*  For  sake  of  convenience  the  pipette  of  100  c.c.  was  divided  into  1000 
parts. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


507 


Ing,  and  the  pipette  with  its  connections  for  measuring  the 
normal  solution. 


A  common  glass  carboy  is  a  very  suitable  vessel  for  a  reser- 
voir, and  is  easily  obtained  and  adapted  to  its  purpose.  The 
following  figure  will  show  the  method  of  arranging  and  con- 
necting it  with  a  simple  measuring-apparatus.  The  carboy 


508  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

will  hold  about  60  litres,  or  15-16  gallons.  It  has  a  paper 
scale  affixed  to  it,  which  is  graduated  by  adding,  successively, 
a  known  number  of  litres  of  water  until  the  carboy  is  filled, 
and  marking,  after  each  addition,  the  height  of  the  liquid. 

B  and  V  are  parts  of  an  hydraulic  valve.  B  is  a  bell,  or 
cover  of  glass,  through  which  the  tubes  pass,  being  fitted  by 
means  of  a  cork.  Y  is  the  neck  of  sheet-iron,  about  four 
inches  deep.  The  valve  is  closed  with  mercury,  which  should 
fill  the  neck  to  about  one-third  of  its  height.  An  enlarged 
section  of  the  valve  and  tubes  is  shown  at  Y.  The  tube  T 
and  the  siphon  S  reach  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  carboy ; 
the  former  admits  air  to  the  carboy,  and  as  no  air  can  pass  out 
by  the  tube,  evaporation  is  effectually  prevented.  The  siphon 
is  jointed  with  rubber-tubing  at  "  a,"  and  has  a  stop-cock  at 
"  b."  It  is  furnished,  at  the  lower  end,  with  a  piece  of  rubber- 
tubing  of  sufficient  length  for  connecting  it  with  the  lower  end 
of  the  pipette  P  ;  the  latter  is  supported  by  the  brackets  "cc," 
which  are  themselves  affixed  to  the  wall  of  the  room,  or  to  an 
upright  standard.  The  upper  extremity  of  the  pipette  passes 
through  a  vessel,  "  d,"  designed  to  catch  the  liquid  running 
over  from  the  former. 

The  method  of  using  the  apparatus  is,  to  attach  the  tube  to 
the  pipette,  as  shown  in  the  figure ;  open  the  pinch-cock  "  e," 
and  allow  the  normal  solution  to  flow  upwards  into  the  pipette 
until  the  latter  overflows.  Stow  the  flow  and  close  the 
pipette  with  the  finger,  as  shown ;  upon  removing  the  rubber- 
tube,  and  wiping  off  with  a  sponge  any  of  the  solution  adher- 
ing to  the  outside  of  the  pipette  below,  the  latter  is  ready  to 
deliver  exactly  100  c.c.  of  liquid  into  the  bottle  placed  to 
receive  it.  The  method  of  measuring  the  normal  solution  is 
employed  at  the  United  States  Assay  Office  in  New  York;  it 
certainly  has  the  merit  of  being  simple  and  expeditious.  We 
have  shown  at  Z  the  form  of  apparatus  in  use  for  the  same 
purpose  at  the  School  of  Mines,  New  York.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  pipette  is  filled  from  above.  EE  are  two  sockets, 
separated  by  a  stop-cock,  F.  The  upper  one,  which  is  screwed 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


509 


inside,  is  connected  by  means  of  a  cork  "  g,"  with  the  siphon 
S,  which  conducts  the  normal  solution.  The  lower  socket  is 
cemented  to  the  pipette,  and  is  furnished  with  a  conical  air- 
tap,  G.  Below  the  air-tap  G,  and  soldered  to  the  socket,  is  a 
very  narrow  silver  tube  H,  conducting  the  solution  into  the 
pipette,  and  allowing  the  escape  of  displaced  air  by  the  air- 
tap.  The  cock  F  is  provided  with  a  thumb-screw  "h,"  by 
means  of  which  it  is  adjusted  on  its  seat ;  "  cc  "  are  brackets 
for  the  support  of  the  pipette  and  tube.  To  use  the  apparatus : 
open  the  air-tap  G,  and  close  the  lower  orifice  of  the  pipette 
with  the  finger ;  open  the  cock  F,  and  allow  the  solution  to 
fill  the  pipette  above  the  100  c.c.  mark,  then  close  the  cock 
and  air-tap.  The  finger  may  now  be  removed,  and  the  solu- 
tion lowered  to  the  100  c.c.  mark  by  allowing  air  to  enter 
slowly  through  the  tap  G.  When  the  liquid  reaches  the 
proper  level,  close  the  tap  and  remove  with  a  sponge  any  of 
the  solution  adhering  to  the  outside  of  the  pipette,  which  is 
now  ready,  on  opening  the  air-tap,  to  deliver  exactly  100  c.c. 
of  the  normal  solution.  To  facilitate  the  last  part  of  the 
operation  we  employ  the  following  contrivance : 


0  is  a  cylinder  of  tin  plate  to  receive  the  assay  bottle,  m  is 
&  sponge  enveloped  in  linen  and  forced  into  a  tube  of  tin  plate, 
terminated  above  by  a  cup,  open  below,  so  that  the  liquid 
may  run  into  the  vessel  B,  on  which  the  tube  is  soldered.  The 


510  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

whole  of  this  apparatus  is  affixed  to  a  sheet  of  tin  plate,  mova- 
ble in  two  slots,  R  R.  The  extent  of  this  movement  is  deter- 
mined by  two  stops,  1 1,  so  placed  that  when  the  base  of  the 
apparatus  abuts  against  one  of  them,  the  pipette  will  be  in 
contact  with  the  sponge,  and  that,  when  it  strikes  the  other, 
the  orifice  of  the  pipette  will  be  directly  over  the  centre  of  the 
neck  of  the  bottle.  The  sponge  is  placed  in  contact  with  the 
pipette  immediately  after  removing  the  finger. 

The  precipitated  chloride  of  silver  must  be  exposed  to  the 
light  as  little  as  possible.  Sunlight  converts  the  chloride  into 
a  subchloride,  liberating  chlorine,  and  thus  vitiates  the  results. 
This  is  avoided  by  placing  the  bottle  in  a  cylinder  of  tin  plate 
when  about  to  agitate  the  solution,  and  by  keeping  it,  at  other 
times,  in  some  receptacle  which  will  shut  out  the  light.  We 
employ  for  this  purpose  a  table  with  a  double  top  ;  the  upper 
is  pierced  with  holes,  along  its  length,  for  the  reception  of  the 
bottles,  which,  when  resting  on  the  lower,  hardly  project  above 
the  top.  The  table  is  also  provided  at  the  back  with  a  black- 
board and  means  for  draining  the  bottles.  On  the  blackboard 
are  recorded  the  additions  of  salt  and  of  silver  solution ;  the 
former  are  designated  by  a  +  sign,  and  the  latter  by  a  —  sign. 

The  action  of  sunlight  may  be  prevented  by  windows  of 
yellow  glass,  which  exclude  the  chemical  rays. 

In  the  foregoing  description  it  has  been  assumed  that  the 
temperature  of  the  normal  solution  remains  the  same  as  that 
at  which  it  was  standardized.  Such  is  not  the  case  in  practice, 
for  the  temperature  varies  constantly.  At  a  higher  tempera- 
ture the  pipette  will  contain  less  salt,  and  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture more  salt ;  consequently  the  standard  of  the  bullion  would 
be  fixed  too  high  in  the  former  and  too  low  in  the  latter  case. 
It  is  convenient  to  standardize  the  normal  solution  for  a  tem- 
perature of  20°  C.  A  simple  calculation  will  give  the  follow- 
ing table  of  corrections  to  be  made  in  the  estimated  standard 
of  bullion,  when  the  temperature  of  the  normal  solution  is 
other  than  that  at  which  it  was  standardized,  or  20°  C.  The 
correction  is  given  in  milligrams  or  thousandths,  and  when 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


511 


positive  is  added  to,  and  when  negative  subtracted  from,  the 
estimated  standard. 

CORRECTIONS 

FOR  ESTIMATED  STANDARD  OF    BULLION    CORRESPONDING    TO    DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES   OF   THE   NORMAL   SALT   SOLUTION. 


CENT.  DEG. 

COKRECTIOX. 

CENT.  DEG. 

CORRECTION. 

CENT.  DEG. 

CORRECTION. 

10 

+  0.8 

15 

+  0.6 

20 

0.0 

11 

+  0.8 

16 

+  0.5 

21 

-0.2 

12 

+  0.8 

17 

+  0.4 

22 

-0.4 

13 

+  0.7 

18 

+  0.3 

23 

-0.6 

14 

+  0.7 

19 

+  0.1 

24 

-0.8 

It  is  not  necessary  for  the  normal  solution  to  have  a  temper- 
ature of  20°  C.  when  it  is  standardized.  Suppose  it  be  15°  C. ; 
from  the  above  table,  +0.6  is  the  correction  for  15°  C. ;  i.  e.y 
100  c.c.  of  a  solution  standardized  at  20°  C.  will  precipitate,  at 
15°  C.,  1000.6  milligrams  of  pure  silver.  The  solution  is  there- 
fore made  of  the  latter  strength,  and  corrected  for  a  tempera- 
ture of  20°  C. 


GOLD    COIN    AND    BULLION. 

The  assay  of  gold  coin  and  bullion  comprises  two  determina- 
tions :  (a\  of  copper  or  base  metal,  and  (b),  of  gold.  The 
difference  between  the  sum  of  these  two  and  the  total  weight 
of  bullion  represents  the  amount  of  silver. 

A.— BASE    METAL    DETERMINATION. 

If  the  alloy  contain  no  more  than  20  thousandths  of  copper, 
weigh  out  0.500  grams,  and  cupel  with  half  a  sheet  of  lead. 

If  it  contain  more  than  20  thousandths  of  copper,  cupel 
0.250  grams  of  the  alloy  with  a  whole  sheet  of  lead. 

If  a  large  amount  of  silver  be  present,  cupel  0.500  grams 
with  a  whole  sheet  of  lead.  The  copper  is  scorified  and  carried 
into  the  cupel,  leaving  a  button  of  gold  (and  silver,  if  there  is 
any).  A  check  assay  is  made  with  every  set  of  assays.  A 

W    *  «/  I/  «/ 

proof  alloy  containing  850  parts  of  gold,  12  parts  copper,  and 


512  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

38  parts  silver,  may  be  employed.  This  ought  to  lose  by 
cupellation  just  the  12  parts  of  copper.  It  may  lose  more  or 
less,  and,  according  to  the  difference  one  way  or  the  other,  we 
correct  the  regular  assays  which  have  been  made  under  the 
same  conditions.  Suppose  the  check  assay  yielded  11.8  thou- 
sandths copper ;  0.2  thousandths  have  been  retained,  and  the 
proportion  of  copper  in  each  of  the  regular  assays  must  be 
increased  by  that  amount. 

If  the  check  assay  had  yielded  12.2  thousandths  as  the  pro- 
portion of  copper,  it  would  be  known  that  00.2  thousandths 
of  silver  were  lost,  and  the  proportion  of  copper  obtained  in 
each  of  the  regular  assays  would  be  diminished  to  this  extent. 

B.— GOLD    PARTING. 

Add  to  0.5  gram  of  alloy  enough  pure  silver  so  that  the 
silver  will  be  twice  as  much  as  the  gold  in  its  composition. 

The  assayer  can  tell  by  the  touchstone  about  how  much 
silver  was  originally  present.  Wrap  the  alloy  .5  gram  and 
silver  in  a  sheet  of  lead  and  cupel.  If  the  alloy  be  above  950 
fine,  add  say  0.005  grams  of  rolled  copper,  to  toughen  the 
cornet.  This  addition  should  be  made  in  the  fine  gold  proof. 

The  button  from  cupellation  is  flattened  by  the  hammer  on 
an  anvil.  It  is  then  heated  to  redness  in  a  clay  annealing  cup 
placed  in  the  muffle,  when  it  is  removed.  When  cold,  it  is 
passed  between  the  rolls  of  a  small  flatting-mill.  When  rolled 
sufficiently  thin,  the  ribbon  is  again  annealed  and  wound  into 
a  cornet  or  spiral  round  a  small  glass  rod. 

PARTING. 

The  cornet  is  next  subjected  to  the  action  of  nitric  acid  in  a 
glass  matrass  of  about  three  ounces  capacity.  Pure  acid,  abso- 
lutely free  from  chlorine,  is  added  at  different  intervals  and 
heat  applied.  Acids  of  two  different  degrees  of  strength  are 
employed. 

The  first  has  a  specific  gravity  1.16  (21°  Baume) ;  the  sec- 
ond a  specific  gravity  of  1.26  (32°  Baume).  First  pour  on 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


513 


acid,  21°  B.  and  heat  for  ten  minutes ;  replace  this  by  acid 
32°  B.  and  boil  ten  minutes ;  decant  and  make  a  second  boil- 
ing with  acid  of  the  same  strength,  32°  B.  Finally,  the  cornet 
is  washed  with  distilled  water,  the  flask  is  tilled  completely 
with  water,  a  porcelain  capsule  is  placed  over  the  neck,  and 
the  whole  inverted.  The  cornet  falls  gently  through  the 
water  into  the  capsule,  the  flask  is  removed,  the  water  de- 
canted and  the  cornet  dried,  and  annealed  in  the  muffle. 

The  weight  of  this  cornet  gives  the  total  amount  of  gold  in 
the  sample  assayed. 

The  gold,  copper,  and  silver  are  reported  in  thousandths  as 
in  the  assay  of  silver  bullion. 

NATIVE   METAL  AND   ALLOYS. 

Rough  metal  in  scales,  etc.,  is  left  on  the  sieve  during  pul- 
verization of  ores.  The  assay  of  the  above  material  consists, 
ordinarily,  of  scorifi cation,  cupellation,  and  parting.  The 
quantity  of  test  lead  for  scorification  would  vary  in  every  case ; 
but  an  appreciation  of  what  has  been  said  already  concerning 
scorification  will  enable  the  assay er  to  judge  of  the  proper 
quantity.* 


FINENESS   OF  ALL  GOLD  AND   SILVER   COINED 
IN    THE    UNITED   STATES. 

GOLD. 


DATE  OF 
ISSUE. 

$20. 

$10. 

$5. 

$3. 

$2.50. 

$1. 

FINENESS  IN 
THOUSANDTHS. 

1792 

__ 

270 

135 

__ 

67.5 



916| 

1834 

— 

258 

129 



64.5 



899-9-40 

1837 

— 

258 

129 

— 

64.5 



900 

1849 

516 

258 

129 

— 

64.5 

25.8 

900 

1853 

516 

258 

129 

77.4 

64.5 

25.8 

900 

1873 

516 

258 

129 

77.4 

64.5 

25.8 

900 

*  See  Author's  Preface. 


514 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


SILVER. 


DATE  OF 
ISSUE. 

DOLLAR. 

HALF- 
DOLLAR. 

QUAR- 
TER. 

DIME. 

HALF- 
DIME. 

THREE- 
CENT 
PIECE. 

FINENESS  IN 
THOUSANDTHS. 

1792 

416 

208 

104 

416.10 

208-10 

__ 

892-4-10 

1837 

41  2  J 

2061 

103i 

4U 

20  1 

— 

900 

1851 

412.  V 

206^ 

103i 

4H 

20| 

*12f 

900 

1853 

41  2i 

192 

96 

382-5 

19-1-5 

11.52 

900 

1873 

420ft 

192-9-10 

t  962-5 

t  383-5 

;  193-10 

— 

900 

*  The  three-cent  piece  of  1851  was  to  be  only  750  fine. 
t  Twelve  and  a  half  grama. 
%  Nearly. 

ASSAY  OF  LEAD  ORES. 

The  ore  is  first  properly  ground,  when  10  grams  of  it  are 
taken  for  one  assay ;  this  is  mixed  with  25  grams  of  black  flux 
or  its  substitute  (10  grams  of  Na2C03  to  3  grams  of  flour)  on 
a  piece  of  glazed  paper ;  this  is  put  into  a  Hessian  crucible. 
Three  wire  loops,  after  being  sandpapered,  are  put  in  so  that 
they  cross  each  other  on  top,  and  the  charge  is  covered  with 
salt.  It  is  then  introduced  into  the  fire  and  covered,  where  it 
is  left  equal  times  to  and  from  fusion.  That  is,  if  it  takes 
twenty-six  minutes  to  fuse  the  charge,  leave  it  in  six  minutes 
longer ;  then  remove  it  from  the  fire,  and  set  it  aside  to  cool. 
When  perfectly  cool,  the  crucible  is  broken,  the  button  is  ham- 
mered on  an  anvil  into  a  cube  and  weighed.  The  weight  will 
equal,  when  multiplied  by  10  (*£$-),  the  percentage  of  lead  in 
the  ore.  Three  assays  of  each  ore  ought  to  be  made,  and  the 
average  will  equal  the  true  percentage  if  the  results  of  all 
are  about  the  same.  The  above  method,  I  have  found,  gives 
better  results  than  any  other  yet  known. 

ASSAY   OF  TIN   ORES. 

Ten  grams  of  the  pulverized  ore  is  mixed  thoroughly  on 
glazed  paper  with  10  grams  of  cyanide  of  potassium  (KCy). 
This  is  introduced  into  a  crucible  (Hessian  crucible)  lined  with 


THE    CHEMISTS'     MANUAL.  515 

chalk  and  covered  with  salt.  The  crucible  is  then  introduced 
into  a  very  hot  fire  and  covered  over.  If  it  takes  ten  minutes 
to  fusion,  leave  the  crucible  in  ten  minutes  longer ;  then  take 
out  and  set  one  side  to  cool.  When  cold,  crack  crucible  and 
weigh  button,  its  weight  multiplied  by  10  will  equal  the  per- 
centage of  tin  in  the  ore.  Three  assays  of  each  ore  ought  to 
be  made,  and  the  average  will  equal  the  true  percentage,  if 
the  results  are  about  alike  in  each. 

The  crucible  may  be  lined  by  a  paste  of  chalk ;  then  dried. 

ASSAY   OF  ANTIMONY. 

Ten  grams  of  the  pulverized  ore  is  mixed  thoroughly  on  a 
sheet  of  glazed  paper  with  30  grams  of  potassium  cyanide 
(KCy),  and  introduced  into  a  (Hessian)  crucible  and  covered 
with  salt.  The  crucible  is  then  introduced  into  a  very  quick 
fire,  covered  over  and  left  in  for  eight  minutes,  when  it  is 
taken  out  and  put  one  side  to  cool.  When  cold,  the  crucible 
is  cracked  and  the  button  taken  out  and  weighed.  It  is  better 
to  do  duplicate  assays.  The  weight  of  the  button  multiplied 
by  10  will  equal  the  percentage. 

PLATINUM. 

The  assay  of  platinum  may  be  performed  as  follows : 

Fusion  with  lead.* — Weigh  and  pulverize  the  sample  as 
finely  as  possible,  and  sift ;  the  metallic  residue  will  contain 
most  of  the  metal  sought  for.  Weigh  the  residue  and  sittings 
separately. 

1.  SIFTINGS. — Charge  20  grams  in  a  small  crucible  with 

Litharge 50  grams. 

Borax  glass 15       " 

Soda 30       " 

Charcoal 1 

*  Taken  from  "  Notes  on  Assaying."    (Ricketts.) 


516  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

Part  of  the  soda  should  be  mixed  with  the  charge,  and  part 
used  as  cover.  The  proportion  of  fluxes  may  be  varied  to 
suit  the  gangue,  so  as  to  render  the  slag  as  fusible  as  possible. 

The  litharge  is  reduced  bj  the  charcoal,  and  alloys  with  the 
platinum  and  foreign  metals,  save  osm-iridium,  which  will  be 
found  principally  under  the  lead-button.  The  lead-button  is 
then  broken  out,  scorified  with  a  little  borax  glass,  if  too  large, 
and  cupelled  at  as  high  a  temperature  as  possible  in  an  ordi- 
nary bone-ash  cupel  until  it  solidifies.  The  residue  will  be 
platinum,  with  a  little  silver,  gold,  etc.  It  may  be  purified 
by  fusing  in  a  crucible  of  cut  lime,  which  is  heated  by  coal- 
gas,  the  combustion  being  supported  by  a  current  of  oxygen. 

The  lead  retained  in  the  unpurified  button  is  about  one- 
eighth  to  one-quarter  of  its  weight. 

2.  RESIDUE. — Fuse  directly  in  a  scorifier  with  pure  lead  and 
borax  glass,  cupelling  the  whole  or  a  weighed  portion  of  the 
resulting  button  if  it  be  too  large,  as  in  1. 

REMARKS.  —In  place  of  the  method  used  for  the  siftings,  pure  galena  and 
iron  wire  might  be  employed,  as  in  the  assay  for  lead ;  other  fluxes  being 
added  to  suit. 

In  the  charge  given  for  siftings,  twenty  to  thirty  grams  of  granulated 
lead  in  addition  to  the  litharge  can  be  used  with  advantage.  Instead  of 
cupelling  the  lead-button  containing  the  platinum  alone,  add  five  or  six 
times  the  weight  of  the  platinum  in  silver.  This  gives  a  result  free  from 
lead.  The  silver  can  afterwards  be  deducted  in  the  calculation  of  the 
platinum. 


c 

Ilura^irj  ajf 

J 


ANALYSIS    OF    A  MAN. 

(BY  PROF.  MILLER.) 
A  man  5  feet  8  inches  high,  weighing  154  pounds. 

Ibs.  oz.  grs. 

Oxygen Ill     0  0 

Hydrogen 14     ....       0  0 

Carbon . . . 21     ....       0  0 

Nitrogen 3     10  0 

Inorganic  elements  in  the  ash : 

.      2  ....     88 

.       0  ....      0 

0  ....  219 

.       2  ....     47 

.      2  116 

.      0      ...  100 

.       0  ....  290 

.       0  ....     12 

_0  ....  _2 

.       0  ....      0 

The   quantity  of  the  substances  found  in  a  human  body 
weighing  154  Ibs. : 

Ibs.  oz.  grs. 

Water Ill     ....      0  0 

Gelatin 15     ....       0  ....       0 

Albumen 4     ....       3  ....       0 

Fibrine 4     4  0 

Fat 12     ....      0  ....      0 

Ashes _7     ....       9  ...        0 

Total 154  0  0 


Phosphorus  

1 

Calcium 

2 

Sulphur 

o 

Chlorine  

1  ounce  —  437  grains. 
Sodium  

0 

o 

Iron.  

o 

Potassium  ....       . 

o 

Magnesium 

o 

Silica 

o 

Total.  .  , 

154 

520  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


THE    BLOOD. 

The  blood  is  one  of  the  principal  fluids  of  the  body  which  is 
intended  for  its  nutrition,  and  exists  in  two  states : 

(  Arterial  blood — bright-red  or  scarlet. 
(  Vein  blood — dark-red  or  purple. 

Blood  has  a  clammy  feel,  salt  to  the  taste,  slightly  alkaline, 
and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.055 ;  is  viscid,  drying 
rapidly. 

When  blood  is  allowed  to  coagulate,  the  fibrine  entangles 
the  globules,  and  forms  a  clot  and  a  fluid : 

(  Plasma  or  Liquor  Sanguinis. 
BLOOD  -J  ^ 

(  Serum. 

The  plasma  consists  of: 

i  Fibrine. 
PLASMA  •{ 

(  Blood -cells  or  corpuscles. 

The  serum : 

C  Albumen. 
SERUM  <  Water. 
(  Salts. 

The  fibrine  only  becomes  solid  on  allowing  the  blood  to 
coagulate,  as  it  is  held  in  solution  in  the  blood. 


ANALYSIS    OF     BLOOD. 
(BY  M.  GORRUP  BESANEZ.) 


Water  

1st  spec. 
796  93         

3d  spec. 
783  63 

Solid  matters  

203.07        

216.37 

Fibrine    

195 

156 

Corpuscles  

103  23 

..     .          11512 

Albumen  . 

7075 

62.74 

Extractive  matter  and  salts.  .  . 

27.14 

36.94 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL 


NUAL%^!FOR 


COMPARISON    OF  THE   ARTERIAL  AND   VENOUS    BLOOD. 

(BY  MM.    POGGIALE  AND  MARCHAL.) 


Water  

MAN. 
Arterial  Blood  in 
1000  parts. 

822.46 

MAN. 

Venous  Blood  in 
1000  parts. 

818  39 

Solid  matter   

177  54 

181  *W 

Fibrine  

...   .            617 

fiOrt 

Albumen  

66  03 

61  37 

Fatty  matter  

1  10 

1  20 

Globules  

9746 

10fiO*S 

Sodic  cliloride 

3  15 

Q  00 

Soluble  salts  

210 

0  1Q 

Calcic  phosphate  

0  79 

0  76 

Ferric  oxide  

063 

058 

Loss  .  

0.11        

0.09 

Total. 


1000.00 


1000.00 


MEAN    COMPOSITION    OF    MALE   AND    FEMALE   VENOUS 

BLOOD. 


(BY  BACQUEREL  AND  RODIER.) 


Density  of  defibrinated  blood 
Density  of  serum 


Male. 
1060.00 
1028.00 


Female. 
1017.50 
1027.40 


Water 

Fibrine 

Fatty  matters 

Serolin 

Phosphorized  fat 

Cholesterin 

Saponified  fat 

Albumen 

Blood-corpuscles 

Extractive  matters  and  salts. , 

Sodic  Chloride 

Other  soluble  salts 

Earthy  phosphates 

Iron .  . 


779.00 
2.20 
1.60 
0.02 
0.49 
0.09 
1.00 
69.40 

141.10 
6.80 
3.10 
2.50 
0.33 
0.57 


791.10 
2.20 
1.62 
0.02 
0.46 
0.09 
1.04 
70.50 

127.20 
7.40 
3.90 
2.90 
0.35 
0.54 


522  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


COMPOSITION    OF   THE   ASH    OF   HUMAN    BLOOD. 
(By  ENDERLIN.) 

Trisodic  phosphate 22.100  ] 

Sodic  chloride 54.769  I  8g  ?46  j  Soluble 

Potassic  chloride 4.416  |  (    Salts. 

Potassic  sulphate 2.461  J 

Calcic  phosphate 3.636  "i 

Magnesic  phosphate 0.769  1 15.175  |  ***™ 

Ferrous  oxide  and  ferrous  phosphate 10.770  J 

98.921 


BLOOD   GLOBULES. 

BLOOD-GLOBULES  are  often  called  Hood-corpuscles  or  blood- 
disks.  There  are  two  kinds  :  red  and  white.  The  red  glob- 
ules are  round,  having  a  concave  center,  raised  on  the  edge  ; 
their  diameter  varies  between  ^Vff  an<^  Winr  °f  an  mcn  5  aver- 
age, about  g-^Vff  °f  an  mcn-  There  are  from  three  to  four  hun- 
dred times  as  many  red  globules  as  white  (Harley.)  Fifty 
times  as  many  (Todd  and  Bowman).  The  white  globules  are 
much  larger  than  the  red  globules,  and  they  have  a  granular 
surface.  Their  diameter  is  about  of  an  inch. 


DIAMETER   OF  RED    GLOBULES. 

(By  Mr.  GULLIVEB.) 

In  the  Ape  ........  STUTF  °^  an  iQch.  In  the  Cat  .......  TiW  °^  an  i 

"    "    Horse  ......  ^  «   «     "  «    •'    Fox  .......  ^  '< 

"    "Ox  .........  ^nr""      "  "    "Wolf.  ......  *&*  « 

"    "    Sheep  ......  5tW"   "      "  "    "    Elephant... 

"     ".    Goat  .......  ^Vo  "    "      "  "    "    Red-deer.  .  . 

"    "    Dog  ........  -gfa"   "     "  "    "    Musk-deer,  . 


The  amount  of  blood  in  proportion  to  the  entire  weight  of 
a  body  is  as  1  :  8.  So  that  a  man  weighing  145  Ibs.  contains 
on  the  average  18  Ibs.  of  blood. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  523 


ANALYSIS  OF   BLOOD-CORPUSCLES  AND   OF   LIQUOR 

SANGUINIS   OR    PLASMA. 

(By  LEHMAN.) 

Blood  Corpuscles.  Liquor  Sanguinis. 

Water 688.00  902.90 

Solid  constituents 312.00  97.10 

Specific  gravity 1.0885  1.021 

Hgematin 16.75      Fibrin.  4.05 

Hffimato  crjstallin 241.07     Albumen.       78.84 

Cell  membranes 41.15 

Fat 2.31  1.72 

Extractive  matter 2.60  3.94 

Mineral  substances  (exclusive  of  iron).      8.12  8.55 

Chlorine 1.686  3.644 

Acid  sulphuric. 0.066  0.115 

Acid  phosphoric 1.134  0.191 

Potassium 3.328  0.323 

Sodium 1.052  3.341 

Oxygen 0.667  0.403 

Calcic  phosphate 0.114  0.311 

Magnesic  phosphate 0.073  0.222 


DETECTION    OF   HUMAN    BLOOD    BY  THE    MICROSCOPE. 

The  crystals  which  form  in  blood  under  certain  circum- 
stances, and  when  treated  by  certain  reagents,  affords  a  means 
of  detecting  human  blood  from  other  blood. 

f  may  form  Hsematin  crystals. 
Blood  •!     "        "     Hsematoidin  crystals. 
I    ••       "     Hsemin 

"  HGEMATIN  CRYSTALS  found  in  normal  blood,  particularly  in  the  spleen, 
may  be  obtained  by  agitating  the  blood  with  water  or  ether,  so  that  the 
blood  corpuscles  are  ruptured  and  their  contents  crystallized."  (See  draw- 
ing below.) 

"  HSEMATOIDIN  CRYSTALS  are  found  in  old  clots."    (See  below.) 
"H^MiN  CRYSTALS  may  be  made  by  mixing  dried  blood  with  equal 
quantity  of  common  salt,  and  boiling  it  with  a  few  drops  of  glacial  acetic 
acid  till  the  whole  has  dissolved.    A  drop  of  the  mixture  on  the  slide  will 
show  the  crystals  on  cooling." 


524 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


Figure  1  represents  the  crystals  from  blood  of  a  guinea-pig  (trihedral). 

'  2         u  "         "          "         "      "  "  squirrel  (pentagonal). 

k  3        "  "         "          "         "      "  "  rat  and  mouse  (octahedral). 

*  4         u  "         u          "       human  blood  (haematin  crystals). 

'  5        "  "         "          "  "          lt     (hsematoidin  crystals). 

1  6        u  "         "          u  "          "     (hsemin  crystals). 

1  7  a  represents  red  corpuscles,  and  b  represents  white  corpuscles. 


MUCUS. 

Mucus  is  prepared  in  the  follicles  or  glandulse  with  which 
nearly  all  the  mucous  membranes  are  provided. 

u  Mucus  is  a  clear  colorless  fluid  which  is  poured  out  in 
large  or  small  quantity  on  the  surface  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes. It  is  distinguished  from  other  secretions  by  its  vis- 
cidity, which  is  its  most  marked  physical  property,  and  which 
depends  on  the  presence  of  a  peculiar  animal  matter,  known 
under  the  name  of  mucosine.  When  mixed  with  other  ani- 
mal fluids,  this  viscidity  is  so  great  that  the  mucus  has  nearly 
a  semi-solid  or  gelatinous  consistency." 

Mucus  is  very  smooth  and  slippery  (slimy)  to  the  touch,  and 
this  property  enables  it  to  protect  the  mucous  membrane  from 
injury,  and  facilitates  the  passage  of  foreign  substances. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  pulmonary  mucus,  that 
is,  the  fluid  secreted  by  the  follicles  of  the  trachea  and  bron- 
chial tubes : 

(By  NASSE.) 

Water 955.520 

Solid  constituents 44.480 

Mucin,  with  a  little  albumen 23.754 

Water  extract 8.006 

Alcohol  extract 1.810 

Fat 2.887 

Sodic  chloride 5.825 

sulphate 0.400 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  525 

Sodic  carbonate 0.198 

"      phosphate 0.080 

Potassic  phosphate,  with  trace  of  iron. . .  0.974 

carbonate 0.291 

Silica,  and  potassic  sulphate 0.255 

Mucus,  when  viewed  under  the  microscope  (200  diameters), 
is  seen  to  consist  of  granular  oval  corpuscles  and  epithelial 
scales,  and  a  watery  fluid.  This  fluid,  if  examined  under  a 
more  powerful  magnifier,  is  seen  to  consist  of  minute  molecu- 
lar particles,  which  have  not  been  studied  as  yet.  The  aver- 
age diameter  of  the  mucous-corpuscles  is  about  ^Vff  °^  an  mcn  > 
they  vary  considerably. 

SEBACEOUS    MATTER. 

Sebaceous  matter  is  produced  in  the  human  subject  in  three 
forms :  first,  by  the  sebaceous  glands  of  the  skin ;  second,  by 
the  ceruminous  glands  of  the  external  auditory  meat  us ;  and 
third,  by  the  meibomian  glands  of  the  eyelid. 

Sebaceous  matter  is  characteristic  by  containing  a  very  large 
proportion  of  fatty  or  oily  ingredients. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  SEBACEOUS  MATTER  OFTHE  SKIN. 

(BY  ESENBECK.) 

Animal  substances 358 

Fatty  matters 368 

Calcic  phosphate 200 

"       carbonate 21 

Magnesic  carbonate 16 

Sodic  chloride,  acetate,  etc 37 

1000 

PERSPIRATION. 

Perspiration  is  a  clear-colored  watery  liquid,  with  a  dis- 
tinctly acid  reaction,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  1.003  or  1.004. 
Lavoisier  and  Seguin  found  that  in  24  hours  about  13.500  gr., 
or  nearly  two  pounds  avoirdupois  of  perspiration  was  given 


526  THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

out  of  a  healthy  person.  It  appears  that  the  lungs  exhale 
during  the  same  time  over  8000  grains ;  so  that  from  the  lungs 
and  skin  combined  the  watery  exhalations  amount  on  the 
average  to  rather  more  than  three  pounds  per  day.  The 
amount  of  perspiration  discharged  during  violent  exercise  has 
been  known  to  rise  as  high  as  5000  or  6000  grains  per  hour. 
Southwood  Smith  found  that  the  laborers  employed  in  heated 
gasworks  lost  by  both  cutaneous  and  pulmonary  exhalation  as 
much  as  3|-  pounds  weight  in  less  than  an  hour. 

COMPOSITION    OF    PERSPIRATION.* 

Water 995.50 

Sodic  chloride 2.23 

Potassic  chloride 0.24 

Sodic  and  potassic  sulphate 0.01 

Sodium  and  potassium  united  to  organic  acids 2.02 

1000.00 

TEARS. 

This  secretion  is  a  clear,  alkaline,  watery  fluid,  containing 
an  organic  substance  similar  to  albumen,  and  saline  matters 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  sodic  chloride.  The  following 
is  its  composition  : 

COMPOSITION    OF    TEARS. 

(Taken  from  ROBIN,  Le$on  sur  les  Humeurs.) 

Water 982.0 

Albuminous  matter 5.0 

Sodic  chloride. ...  13.0 

Other  mineral  salts .2 

1000.2 

MILK. 

The  fluid  secreted  by  the  mammary  glands  of  women  (as  in 
the  case  of  all  animals),  near  the  end  of  utero-gestation  during 

*  This  analysis  and  the  above  remarks  are  taken  from  different  parts  of 
an  article  on  Perspiration,  in  Dalton's  Physiology. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


527 


a  period  which  varies  considerably  and  has  not  been  accurately 
determined,  as  also  the  fluid  secreted  for  a  few  days  after 
delivery,  is  called  colostrum. 

Flint  describes  the  colostrum  secreted  before  delivery  as  a 
thickish,  stringy  fluid,  which  bears  little  resemblance  to 
perfectly-formed  milk. 

The  colostrum  after  delivery  the  author  has  always  found 
to  be  a  light  yellowish,  opaque,  alkaline  fluid,  having,  as  Flint 
says,  "  a  mucilaginous  consistence." 

The  following  table  contains  an  analysis  of  the  colostrum  of 
a  white  and  colored  woman : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

COLOSTRUM 
WHITE  WOMAN. 
Average.    (TIDY.) 

COLOSTRUM 
COLORED  WOMAN. 

(MOTT.) 

Water  

84.077 

85.01 

Solids 

15  923 

1499 

100.000 

100.00 

Fat                                            .          .... 

5.781 

4.31 

Casein                            .       ) 

t 

3.22 

Albumen  ..         .    ...       ) 

3.228       j 

.88 

Milk-sugar  ,  

6.513 

6.05 

Mineral  salt  

0.335 

0.53 

15.923 

14.99 

From  observations,  microscopical  arid  otherwise,  the  author 
has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  on  the  eighth  or  tenth  day  after 
delivery  all  the  characters  of  the  colostrum  disappear,  and  the 
secretion  becomes  normal,  that  is  to  say,  healthy  milk.  In 
some  very  rare  cases,  though,  a  few  colostrum  corpuscles  and 
masses  of  agglutinated  milk-globules  may  be  discovered  after 
the  tenth  day,  but  such  cases  are  very  rare. 


528 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


The    following    table   contains   analyses   of  pure   healthy 
woman's  milk : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

White  Woman's 
Milk. 
Average,  89  Anal. 
(VERNOIS  and 
BECQUEKEL). 

White  Woman's 
Milk. 
Average,  1U  Anal. 

(TIDY). 

Colored  Woman's 
Milk. 
Average,  12  Anal. 

(MOTT). 

Water             

88.908 

87.806 

86.34 

Milk  solids  

11.092 

12.193 

13.66 

100.000 

100.000 

100.00 

Fat  

2.665 

4.021 

4.03 

3.924 

3.523 

3.32 

4.364 

4.265 

5.71 

0.138 

0.285 

0.60 

11.092 

12.193 

13.66 

Human  milk  is  white,  bluish-white,  and  more  rarely 
yellowish-white  opaque  fluid,  having  a  slight  odor,  sweetish 
taste,  and  possessing  an  alkaline  reaction.  Its  specific  gravity 
varies  between  1.02561  —  1.04648  (Vernois  and  Becquerel). 
Its  average  specific  gravity,  according  to  Sirnon,  is  1.032. 
The  average  specific  gravity  of  colored  woman's  milk  is 
1.0223. 

If  a  drop  of  milk  be  examined  under  the  microscope, 
myriads  of  beautifully  formed  globules  of  various  sizes  will 
be  seen  suspended  in  a  clear  liquid.  These  globules  are 
known  as  milk-globules,  are  of  a  slight  yellow  color,  dark 
around  the  edges,  and  exhibit  a  pearly  gloss.  The  diameter 
of  the  human  milk-globule  is  not  larger  than  ^^QQ  of  an 
inch,  and  most  of  them  are  about  y^-^  of  an  inch.  The 
colostrum-corpuscles  spoken  of  above  are  somewhat  larger; 
their  diameter  varies  between  T^^  to  -gfa  of  an  inch  ;  these 
corpuscles  always  make  their  appearance  in  the  milk,  when  it 
is  in  an  unhealthy  condition.  It  is  to  the  envelopes  which 
surround  the  milk-globules  that  the  opaque  and  white  appear- 
ance of  milk  is  due.  These  envelopes  are  translucent,  and 
(but  to  no  great  extent)  refract  light. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL.  529 

When  the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time,  most  of 
the  milk-globules,  owing  to  their  low  specific  gravity,  rise  to 
the  surface  and  form  a  thick,  fatty,  yellowish-white  stratum,  to 
which  the  name  cream  has  been  given.  The  fluid  below  the 
layer  of  cream  has  necessarily  become  poorer  in  fat ;  it  has  a 
more  bluish-white  color,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  increased. 
If  this  fluid  be  allowed  to  stand  still  longer,  the  casein  which 
it  contains  is  precipitated,  or  curdled,  that  is  to  say  rendered 
insoluble ;  at  the  same  time  the  fluid  becomes  acid  or  sour. 
The  acidity  is  due  to  the  lactic  acid  which  has  been  formed ; 
the  lactose  or  milk-sugar  merely  having  undergone  a  molecular 
change.  This  natural  coagulation  of  milk  is  due  to  the  growth 
and  development  of  fungus  plants ;  the  lactic  acid  is  not  neces- 
sary for  its  progress ;  the  casein  undergoes  a  change  similar 
to  the  change  from  soluble  silica  to  insoluble  silica. 

SALIVA. 

"  Human  saliva,  as  it  is  obtained  directly  from  the  buccal 
cavity,  is  a  colorless,  slightly  viscid  and  alkaline  fluid,  with  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.005.  When  first  discharged  it  is  frothy 
and  opaline,  holding  in  suspension  minute  whitish  flocculi." 
— (Dalton's  Human  Physiology.) 

COMPOSITION    OF    SALIVA. 

(BY  BlDDEK  AND   SCHMIDT.) 

Water 995.16 

Organic  matter 1 .34 

Potassic  sulphocyanide 0.06 

Magnesic,  sodic  and  calcic  phosphate .98 

Sodic  and  potassic  chlorides .84 

Mixture  of  epithelium 1.62 


1000.00 


The  sediment  that  deposits  from  human  saliva  consists  of 
buccal  and  glandular  epithelium,  with  granular  matter  and 
oil-globules. 


530  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUALV 


COMPOSITION    OF   HUMAN    PAROTID    SALIVA. 

(By  PROF.  MAURICE  PERKINS.) 

Water 983.308 

Organic  matter  precipitated  by  alcohol 7.352 

Substances  destructible  by  heat,  but  not  precipitated  by  alcohol 

or  acids 4.810 

Sodic  sulphocyanide 0.330 

Calcic  phosphate 0.240 

Potassic  chloride 0.900 

Sodic  chloride  and  sodic  carbonate. .  3.060 


1000.000 

SALIVA  required  for  mastication  of  19*  ounces  of  bread  =   4572  grains. 

16*          "         meat  =   3360      " 
Secreted  in  intervals  of  meals =  12232      " 

Total  quantity  in  24  hours  =  20164      " 
Or  rather  less  than  three  pounds  additional  (Dalton). 

GASTRIC  JUICE. 

The  gastric  juice  should  be  drawn  about  fifteen  minutes 
after  feeding,  separated  by  filtration  from  accidental  impurities. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  1.010.  Becomes  opalescent  on  boiling, 
owing  to  the  coagulation  of  its  organic  ingredients. 

The  following  is  the  composition  of  gastric  juice  of  the  dog, 
based  on  a  comparison  of  various  analyses  by  Lehmann, 
Bidder  and  Schmidt,  and  other  observers. — (Dalton's  Physiol- 
ogy, p.  126.) 

*  Allowance  for  a  man  in  full  health. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  531 

COMPOSITION    OF    GASTRIC    JUICE. 

Water 975. 00 

Organic  matter 15.00 

Lactic  acid* 4.78 

Sodic  chloride 1 .70 

Potassic  chloride 1.08 

Calcic  chloride 0.20 

Ammonic  chloride 0.65 

Calcic  phosphate 1.48 

Magnesic  phosphate 0.06 

Iron..  0.05 


1000.00 

PANCREATIC    JUICE. 

Pancreatic  juice  is  a  clear,  colorless,  somewhat  viscid  fluid, 
having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.008  to  1.010,  and  a  distinctly 
alkaline  reaction. 

COMPOSITION    OF    PANCREATIC    JUICE. 

(BY  BIDDER  AND  SCHMIDT.) 

Water 900.76 

Organic  matter  (pancreatine) 90.38 

Sodic  chloride 7.36 

Soda,  free 0.32 

Sodic  phosphate 0.45 

"      sulphate 0.10 

Potassic  sulphate 0.02 

f  Calcic  oxide 0.54 

Combinations  of  -J  Magnesic  oxide 0.05 

(  Ferrous  oxide 0.02 

1000.00 

*  Lehmann  finds  lactic  and  hydrochloric  acid  ;  more  of  the  former  than 
of  the  latter.  Bidder  and  Schmidt  find,  in  place  of  lactic  acid,  in  most  of 
tljeir  analyses  hydrochloric.  Fownes  states  that  "hydrochloric,  lactic, 
butyric,  propionic,  and  acetic  acids  are  present,"  and  gives  the  sp.  gr.  1.002. 
"  It  contains  two  albuminous  substances,  one  insoluble  in  water  and  absolute 
alcohol,  the  other  soluble  in  water  but  precipitated  by  alcohol,  tannin,  mer- 
curic chloride  and  lead  salts.  This  is  pepsin.  In  the  gastric  juice  of  man  it 
exists  to  the  amount  of  0.319  per  cent.  When  the  gastric  juice  has  the 
greatest  solvent  power,  100  parts  of  fluid  are  saturated  by  1.25  parts  of 
potash.  The  gastric  juice  dissolves  the  albuminous  substances  taken  as 


532  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

"  The  albuminous  substance  resembles  ptyalin,  together  with 
leucine,  guanine,  xanthine,  and  inosite.  The  pancreatic  juice 
has  three  distinct  actions — first,  on  starch ;  secondly,  on  fat ; 
and  thirdly,  on  albuminous  matter. 

"  Starch  is  converted  into  sugar  more  energetically  by  the 
pancreatic  fluid  than  by  the  saliva.  Fat  is  changed  into  fatty 
acids  and  glycerine  at  a  temperature  of  35°  C. ;  and  boiled 
albumen  and  fibrin  are  quickly  dissolved  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture, while  the  alkalescence  distinctly  remains." 

INTESTINAL    JUICE. 

The  intestinal  juice  is  "  colorless  and  glassy  in  appearance, 
viscid  and  mucous  in  consistency,  and  has  a  distinct  alkaline 
reaction.  It  has  the  property,  when  pure,  as  well  as  when 
mixed  with  other  secretions,  of  rapidly  converting  starch  into 
sugar  at  the  temperature  of  the  living  body." — (Dalton's 
Physiology.)  Frerichs  found  from  2.2  to  2.6  of  solid  constit- 
uents in  the  intestinal  juice,  in  which  the  parts  soluble  in  water 
amounted  to  0.87$,  the  fat  0.195$,  and  the  ash  0.84$.  Len- 
in ann  only  found  2.156$  of  solid  constituents. 

BILE. 

The  bile  is  very  readily  obtained  from  the  gall-bladder.  It 
is  a  "  somewhat  viscid  and  glutinous  fluid,  varying  in  color 
and  specific  gravity  according  to  the  species  of  animals  from 
which  it  is  obtained.  Human  bile  is  of  a  dark  golden -brown 
color,  ox  bile  of  a  greenish  yellow,  pig's  bile  of  a  nearly  clear 
yellow,  and  dog's  bile  of  a  deep  brown.  Specific  gravity  of 
human  bile,  1.018;  that  of  ox  bile,  1.024;  that  of  pig's"  bile, 
1.030  to  1.036."  The  bile  is  distinctly  alkaline,  and  miscible 
in  water  in  all  proportions. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  bile  of  an  ox,  based  on 
the  calculations  of  Berzelius,  Frerichs,  and  Lehmann  (Dal- 
ton's Physiology,  p.  162) : 

food,  and  slightly  changes  tlieir  reaction.     Thus,  albumen,  fibrin,  casein, 
legumin,  gluten,  and  chondrin,  give  rise  to  as  many  different  peptones." 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  533 

COMPOSITION    OF    OX    BILE. 

Water 880.00 

Sodic  glykocliolate ) 

"     tauro-cholate > 

Biliverdin 

Fats 

Sodic  and  potassic  oleates,  palniitate,  and  stearate 

Cholesterin 

Sodic  cliloride 

"     phosphate 

Calcic  phosphate [•       15.24 

Magnesic  phosphate 

Sodic  and  potassic  carbonate 

Mucus  of  the  gall-bladder 1.34 

1000.00 

COMPOSITION    OF    HUMAN    BILE. 

(BY  GORUP-BESANEY.) 

Water , 823—908 

Solid  matter 177—  92 

Bile-acids  with  alkali 108—  56 

Fat  and  cholesterin 47 —  40 

Mucus  and  coloring  matter 24 —  15 

Ash..... 11—    6 

The  bile  is  formed  or  prepared  by  the  liver  from  venous 
instead  of  arterial  blood.  The  most  important  constituent  in 
the  bile  is  sodic  glyko-cholate  and  tauro-cholate,  which  sub- 
stances were  discovered  in  ox  bile  by  Streeker,  in  1848.  Both 
these  salts  are  freely  soluble  in  water,  and  if  plumbic  acetate 
be  added  to  the  solution,  plumbic  glyko-cholate  is  precipitated, 
which  may  be  filtered  off;  then  if  plumbic  subacetate  be 
added,  a  precipitate  of  plumbic  tauro-cholate  is  produced,  which 
may  also  be  filtered  oif.  The  above-named  salts,  sodic  glyko- 
cholate  (NaC26N06)  and  sodic  tauro-cholate  (Na2C52H90N2 
S20 , 5),  only  exist  in  ox  bile ;  the  similar  compounds  in  human 
bile,  when  in  a  water  solution,  are  precipitated  by  plumbic 
acetate  and  plumbic  subacetate,  but,  ai'ter  adding  the  first  of 
the  above  reagents,  if  to  the  filtrate  plumbic  subacetate  be 


534:  THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

added,  no  precipitate  is  produced.  The  entire  biliary  ingre- 
dients of  human  bile  are  therefore  precipitated  by  both  or 
either  of  the  salts  of  lead. 

"  The  principal  coloring  matter  of  the  bile  is  called  Bilintbin 
or  Cholipyrrhin.  When  dry  it  is  reddish-brown  and  uncrys- 
tallizable,  insoluble  in  water,  more  soluble  in  alcohol,  which 
it  colors  yellow,  and  most  soluble  in  caustic  alkali.  On  the 
addition  of  nitric  acid  to  the  yellow  alkaline  solution,  a  change 
ensues.  The  color  passes  through  green,  blue,  violet,  and  red ; 
after  some  time,  the  liquid  again  turns  yellow,  probably  in 
consequence  of  a  gradual  process  of  oxidation. 

"Another  coloring  matter  of  bile  is  called  Biliverdin.  It 
is  dark -green,  amorphous,  without  taste  or  smell,  insoluble  in 
water,  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  ether." 


PETTENKOFER'S  TEST. 

Add  to  the  watery  solution  of  the  bile  or  of  the  biliary 
substances,  one  drop  of  a  solution  of  sugar  in  water  (1  pt.  of 
sugar  to  4  pts.  of  water) ;  then  add  sulphuric  acid,  drop  by 
drop ;  a  white  precipitate  forms  (which  is  abundant  in  case  of 
an  ox,  less  in  a  dog),  which  dissolves  in  excess  of  acid.  The 
acid  is  added  until  the  solution  assumes  a  somewhat  syrupy 
consistency  and  an  opalescent  look,  owing  to  the  development 
of  minute  bubbles  of  air.  A  red  color  begins  to  show  itself 
at  the  bottom  of  the  mixture,  and  afterwards  spreads  until  the 
wrhole  fluid  is  a  clear,  bright  cherry  red.  This  color  gradually 
changes  to  a  lake,  and  finally  to  a  deep,  rich  opaque  purple. 
Add  now  three  or  four  volumes  of  water  to  the  mixture ;  a 
copious  precipitate  forms,  and  falls  down  ;  the  color  is  destroyed. 

The  red  color  obtained  cannot  be  relied  upon  as  proof  of 
the  presence  of  biliary  matter,  but  if  the  purple  color  is  ob- 
tained, the  presence  of  biliary  matter  may  be  considered 
proved. 

If  the  biliary  matter  is  present  in  only  small  quantities  in 
the  solution  to  be  tested,  the  red  color  will  not  show  itself  for 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  535 

seven  or  eight  minutes,  nor  the  purple  under  twenty  or 
twenty-five  minutes. 

In  delicate  reactions  "  evaporate  the  suspected  fluid  to  dry- 
ness,  extract  the  dry  residue  with  absolute  alcohol,  precipitate 
this  solution  with  ether,  and  dissolve  the  ether  precipitate  in 
water  before  applying  the  test.  In  this  manner,  all  foreign 
substances  which  might  do  harm  will  be  eliminated,  and  the 
test  will  succeed  without  difficulty. 

Draper  states  that  if  the  average  results  obtained  by  Bidder 
and  Schmidt  from  the  cat  and  dog  be  applied  to  the  human 
subject,  in  an  adult  man  weighing  14:0  pounds,  the  daily 
quantity  of  the  bile  will  be  certainly  not  less  than  16.940 
grains,  or  very  nearly  2^  pounds  avoirdupois. 

The  bile  is  not  an  active  agent  in  digestion ;  it  might  be 
supposed  it  was,  as  it  pours  into  the  intestines  in  the  greatest 
abundance  immediately  after  a  hea.iy  meal ;  this  is  because 
the  intestinal  fluids  are  themselves  present  at  that  time  in 
greatest  abundance,  and  therefore  can  act  upon  and  decom- 
pose the  greatest  quantity  of  bile. 

CHYLE. 

This  is  an  opaque,  milky,  and  feebly  alkaline  fluid,  which 
varies  considerably. 

"It  is  nothing  more  than  the  lymph  which  is  constantly 
absorbed  by  the  lymphatic  system  everywhere,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  more  or  less  fatty  ingredients  taken  up  from  the  intes- 
tines during  the  digestion  of  food." 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE   CHYLE   OF  AN    ASS. 
(BY  DR.  REES.) 

Water 902.37 

Albumen 35.16 

Fibrin 3.70 

Spirit  extract 3.32 

Water  extract 12.33 

Fat 36.01 

Saline  matter 7.11 

1000.00 


536  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

ANALYSIS   OF  THE   CHYLE   OF  A    HORSE. 

(FOWNES'  CHEMISTRY.) 

Water 91.00  to  96.00  per  cent. 

Fixed  constituents 9.00        4.00 

Nuclei  and  cells Variable. 

Fibrin 0.19        0.7 

Albumen 1.93        4.34 

Fat 1.89        0.53 

Extractive  matter  free  from  salts 7.27        8.34 

Soluble  salts 7.49        6.78 

Insoluble about  2.00 

The  chyle  approximates  in  composition  and  properties  to 
the  blood. 

LYMPH. 

The  lymph  is  an  "  opalescent  or  nearly  transparent  alkaline 
fluid,  usually  of  a  light  amber  color  and  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.022.  Its  analysis  shows  a  remarkable  similarity  in 
constitution  between  it  and  the  plasma  of  the  blood." 

ANALYSIS   OF   LYMPH. 

(By  LASSAIGNE.) 

Water 964.0 

Fibrin 000.9 

Albumen 28.2 

Fat 0.4 

Sodic  chloride 5.0 

Sodic  carbonate     \ 

"    phosphate     V  1 .2 

"    sulphate        ; 

Calcic  phosphate 0.5 

998.98 

ANALYSIS   OF  THE    LYMPH    OF  AN   ASS. 
(By  Dr.  REES.) 

Water 965.36 

Albumen 12.00 

Fibrin 1.20 

Spirit-extract 2. 40 

Water-extract 13.19 

Fat Trace. 

Saline  matter 5.85 


1000.00 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  537 

The  following  table  gives  the  quantity  of  fluids  secreted  and 
reabsorbed  during  twenty-four  hours,  calculated  for  a  man 
weighing  140  pounds : 

(DRAPER'S  PHYSIOLOGY,  p.  325.) 

Saliva 20.164  grains,  or    2.880  pounds. 

Gastric  juice 98.000       "         "  14.000 

Bile 16.940      "        "    2.420      " 

Pancreatic  juice 13.104      "         "     1.872 

Lymph 27.048      "        "    3.864       " 

25.036  pounds. 

"  A  little  over  twenty-five  pounds  of  the  animal  fluids  tran- 
sude through  the  internal  membranes,  and  are  restored  to 
the  blood  by  reabsorption  in  the  course  of  a  single  day.  It  is 
by  this  process  that  the  natural  constitution  of  the  parts, 
though  constantly  changing,  is  still  maintained  in  its  normal 
condition  by  the  movement  of  the  circulating  fluids,  and  the 
incessant  renovation  of  their  nutritious  materials." 

BONES. 

"  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  the  weight  of  the  skeleton 
is  to  that  of  the  whole  body  as  10.5  to  100  in  man,  and  as 
8.5  to  100  in  woman,  the  weight  of  the  body  being  about  125 
or  130  pounds.  Bones  are  constructed  of  organic  matter 
called  Ossein,  which  yields  gelatin  on  boiling,  and  is  made 
stiff  by  insoluble  earthy  salts,  of  which  calcic  phosphate  [Ca3 
(P04)2]  is  the  most  abundant.  The  proportion  of  earthy  and 
animal  matter  vary  very  much  with  the  'kind  of  bone  and 
with  the  age  of  the  individual,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  in  which  the  corresponding  bones  of  an  adult  and 
of  a  still-born  child  are  compared.'' — (Fownes'  Chemistry.) 

ADULT.  STILL-BOKN. 


BONES.                            Inorganic  Organic  Inorganic  Organic 

Matter.  Matter.  Matter.  Matter. 

Femur 62.49  37.51  57.51  42.49 

Humerus 63.02  36.98  58.08  41.92 

Radius 60.51  39.49  56.90  44.10 

Os  tempofum. .    63.50  36.50  55.90  44.10 

Costa..                                        ...57.49  42.51  53.75  46.25 


533  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

"  The  bones  of  the  adult  are  constantly  richer  in  earthy  salts 
than  those  of  the  infant." 

The  following  complete  comparative  analysis  of  human  and 
ox  bones  is  due  to  Berzelius : 

Human  Bones.  Ox  Bones. 

Animal  matter  soluble  by  boiling 32. 17 ) 

r  oO.  OU 

Vascular  substance 1.13 ) 

Calcic  phosphate  with  a  little  calcic  fluoride 53.04 

Calcic  carbonate 11.30 

Magnesic  phosphate 1.16 

Soda  and  sodic  chloride 1.20 


100.00  100.00 

The  following  is  another  analysis  of  bones  by  Berzelius : 

Organic  matter :  Gelatin  and  blood-vessels 33. 30 

f  Calcic  phosphate 51.04 

carbonate 11.30 

"      fluoride 2  00 

Magnesic  phosphate •  . .  1. 16 

LSoda  and  sodic  chloride 1.20 


Inorganic 

and 
Earthy  matter 


100.00 
Some  chemists  add  to  this  about  one  per  cent,  of  fat. 

TEETH 

Have  a  very  similar  composition,  but  contain  less  organic 
matter ;  their  texture  is  much  more  solid  and  compact.  The 
enamel  does  not  contain  more  than  2  to  3.5  per  cent,  of  ani- 
mal matter,  but  contains  about  81  to  88  per  cent,  of  calcic 
phosphate,  with  about  7  to  8  per  cent,  calcic  carbonate  and 
more  calcic  fluoride  than  the  bones  contain. 

ANALYSIS   OF  THE   GRAY   AND   WHITE    MATTER   OF  THE 

BRAIN. 

(By  LASSAIGNE.) 

Gray.  White. 

Water 85. 2  73. 0 

Albuminous  matter 7.5  9.9 

Colorless  fat 1.0  13.9 

Redfat 3.7  0.9 

Osmazome  and  Lactates 1.4  1.0 

Phosphates 1.2  1.3 

106.0  100.0 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  539 

"  It  appears  from  this  analysis  that  the  cerebral  substance 
consists  of  albumen  dissolved  in  water,  combined  with  fatty 
matters  and  salts.  The  fatty  matter,  according  to  Fremy, 
consists  of  cerebric  acid,  which  is  most  abundant,  cholesterin, 
oleophosphoric  acid,  and  olein,  margarin,*  and  traces  of  their 
acids.  The  same  analyst  states  that  the  fat  contained  in  the 
brain  is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  white  substance, 
and  that  its  color  becomes  lost  when  the  fatty  matters  are 
removed.  According  to  Vauquelin,  the  cord  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  fat  than  the  brain  ;  and  according  to  L'Heritier, 
the  nerves  contain  more  albumen  and  more  soft  fat  than  the 
brain." — (Gray's  Anatomy,  p.  60,  1870.) 

PUS. 

There  is  a  number  of  different  substances  that  are  included 
under  the  name  of  pus.  The  normal  secretion  is  known  as 
true  or  genuine  pus,  the  other  substances  as  spurious  or  false 
pus.  True  pus  is  the  natural  secretion  of  a  wounded  or  other- 
wise injured  surface.  It  is  a  creamy,  white,  or  yellowish 
opaque  liquid,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.030  or  1.033. 

When  viewed  under  the  microscope,  it  is  seen  to  consist  of 
minute  granular  corpuscles  similar  to  those  in  mucus,  and 
serum  surrounding  them.  The  diameter  of  the  corpuscles  vary 
considerably,  but  are  about  -%fo$  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Pus 
is  neutral  to  test-paper,  although  in  some  rare  cases  it  is  either 
acid  or  alkaline. 

Blue  pus  sometimes  forms  on  the  bandages  on  which  the 
pus  has  been  discharged.  If  this  be  treated  with  water  and 
agitated  with  chloroform,  a  blue  crystalline  coloring  matter 
(pyocyanin)  may  be  obtained  (Fordos). 

*  Margarin  is  composed  of  palinitin  and  stearin. 


540 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


COMPOSITION    OF    PUS. 
(By  DR.  WRIGHT.) 


j 
Water          

Pn«  ft-™  o                PUS  fr°m  a                PUS  fr°m  a 

Pusfioma              pgoas               Mammary 
Vomica.              Abscess.             Abscess. 
894.4     885.2     879.4 

^j.....       28.8     ....      28.5 
11.2     6.1     

Cliolesterin          

68.5 

63.7 

....       33.6 

Sodic,  potassic,  and  calcic  lactates,  car- 
bonates and  phosphates  

9.7 
A  trace. 
3.3 

....       13.5 

2.7 

8.9 
1.6 

Iron               .    .       .       

1000.0 

.  1000.0 

.  1000.0 

URINE. 

The  urine  is  a  clear,  amber-colored,  watery  fluid,  possessing 
when  warm  an  aromatic  odor,  whbh  disappears  upon  cooling. 

The  specific  gravity  of  urine  varies.  Urina  potus  has  a 
specific  gravity  varying  from  1.003  to  1.009;  this  urine  is 
light-yellow  in  color,  and  is  passed  after  drinking  much  water. 
Urina  chyli  has  a  specific  gravity  about  1.030;  this  is  passed 
after  the  digestion  of  a  full  meal.  Urina  sanguinis  possesses 
the  average  specific  gravity  1.015-1.025  ;  this  is  passed  imme- 
diately after  a  night's  rest.  The  average  density  of  the  whole 
urine  passed  by  a  man  in  24-  hours  (which  varies  between  20 
and  50  fluid-ounces)  is  usually  from  1.015  to  1.020. 

The  urine  is  usually  acid  to  test-paper,  but  the  urine  passed 
shortly  after  eating  is  often  neutral,  or  even  alkaline,  becom- 
ing again  gradually  more  and  more  acid  up  to  the  time  the 
next  meal  is  taken  (according  to  Dr.  Bence  Jones).  The 
acidity  of  urine  is  due  mostly  to  mono-sodic  orthophosphate 
(NaH2P04).  If  the  urine  is  to  be  examined  chemically,  it  is 
best  to  take  a  sample  of  all  the  urine  passed  in  twenty-four 
hours.* 

The  following  analysis  of  urine  is  by  Lehmann: 

*  See  Scheme  for  the  Analysis  of  Urine. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


541 


COMPOSITION    OF    THE    URINE. 

Water 937.682 

Urea 31.450 

Uric  acid 1.021 

Lactic  acid 1.496 

Water  and  alcohol  extractives 10.680 

Lactates 1.897 

Sodic  and  ammonic  chlorides 3.646 

Alkaline  phosphates 7.314 

Sodic  phosphate 3.765 

Magnesic  and  calcic  phosphate 1.132 

Mucus...  0.112 


62.318 

solid  matter. 


1000.195 


HELLER'S    ANALYSIS    OF    URINE. 
PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES. 


COLOK. 

ODOK. 
REACTION. 
SP.  GR. 
SEDIMENT. 

UROPH.EIN. 
UROXANTHIN. 
UREA. 
URIC  ACID. 
CHLORIDES. 
SULPHATES. 
EARTHY  PHOS. 
ALK.  PHOS. 


ALBUMEN. 

BILE. 

BLOOD  CORPUSCLES. 

Pus  CORPUSCLES. 

IODINE. 

SUGAR. 

URERYTHRIN. 


Litmus.     Turmeric. 
Urinometer. 

NORMAL    CONSTITUENTS. 

Ur.  gtt.  10  +  H,SO4  oz.  ss. 

Ur.  gtt.  30  +  HC1  oz.  ss. 

Ur.  gtt.  +  HNO;{  gtt. 

Ur.  +  1HC1  +  24  hrs. 

Ur.  +  HN03  +  (AgNO:3+8Aq.) 

Ur.  +  (Sat.  Sol.  BaCl,  +  £HC1). 

Ur.  +  NH4(OH)  in  excess. 

Ur.  —  Earthy    Phos.    ppt.    by 

NH4(OH);  filt.  and  add  (Sat. 

Sol.  MgSO4  +HC1)  made  Alk. 

by  NH4(OH). 

ABNORMAL    CONSTITUENTS. 

Heat  or  HNO3. 

Ur.  spread  on  plate  4-HNO^  gtt. 

By  microscope. 

Ur.  +  HNO;,  +  Starch. 
Ur.  +  \  Liquor  Potassae. 

Boil  and  let  cool. 
Ur.  +  A  +  PbA. 


Brown  color. 
Amethyst  color. 
Nit.  Urea  Crystals. 
Ppt.  U.  Crystals 
Clumpy  white  ppt. 
Ppt.  within  hour. 


Precipitate. 


Coagulates. 
Prismatic  rings. 


Blue  color. 

Brown  color. 
Fawn  ppt. 


542 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


HUMAN    EXCREMENT. 
The  following  are  the  constituents  of  human  excrement : 

Excretin*  (C78H156O3S). 

Excretolic  acid. 

Peculiar  red  coloring  matter. 

Calcic  palmitate  and  stearate. 

Magnesic      "          "          " 

Butyric  acid. 

Taurin. 

Calcic  phosphate. 

Magnesic  and  ammonic  phosphate. 

Potassic  phosphate. 

Insoluble  and  undigested  matters  derived  from  the  food. 

SUBSTANCE    ABSORBED    AND    DISCHARGED. 

The  following  table  gives  approximately  what  is  absorbed 
and  discharged  during  24  hrs.  by  a  healthy  adult  human  subject. 


ABSORBED  DURING  24  HOUKS.t 


DISCHARGED  DURING  24  HOURS. 


Oxygen 1.470  Ibs. 

Water 4.535    " 

Albuminous  matter 305    " 

Starch..  .660    " 


Fat. . 

Salts. 


.220 
.040 

r.aso 


Carbonic  acid 1.630  Ibs. 

Aqueous  vapor 1.155    " 

Perspiration 1.930    " 

Water  of  the  urine 2.020    " 

Urea  and  salts 137    " 

Faeces ,  .358    " 


7.230 


"  Rather  more  than  seven  pounds,  therefore,  are  absorbed 
and  discharged  daily  by  the  healthy  adult  human  subject; 
and  for  a  man  having  the  average  weight  of  140  pounds,  a 
quantity  of  material  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  entire  body 

*  Dr.  Marcet  estimates  the  average  amount  of  excretin  in  each  evacua- 
tion at  about  2.8  grams.  In  the  fa3ces  of  an  infant,  cholesterin  was  found, 
but  no  excretin.  The  faeces  of  a  man  with  a  diseased  pancreas  contained  a 
large  proportion  of  sodic  bistearate.— (Bowman's  Med  Chem.,  p.  168.) 

STERCORINE  was  found  to  be  an  ingredient  of  the  human  fseces  by  Prof. 
A.  Flint,  Jr.  (Am.  Jour.  Med.  Science,  Oct.  1862),  and  was  obtained  by  him 
in  proportions  varying  from  .0007  to  .003  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  faeces. 

f  Dalton's  Human  Physiology,  p.  370. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  543 

thus   passes    through   the   system   in   the   course   of   twenty 
days." 

ANALYSIS    OF    HUMAN    SEMEN. 

(BY  VAUQUELIN.) 

Water 90  parts. 

Mucus !    6 

Calcic  phosphate 3 

Sodic  phosphate 1      " 

100      " 

"  To  examine  the  semen*  in  a  pure  state,  it  must  be  taken 
from  the  vasa  efferentia  of  an  animal  recently  dead,  and  whose 
death  has  been  produced  from  intention  or  accident,  but  not 
from  disease. 

"  The  seminal  fluid,  or  semen,  which  it  is  the  function  of 
the  testicles  to  secrete,  is  always,  when  evacuated,  mixed  with 
the  secretions  of  the  vesiculse  seminales  and  prostate  gland, 
and  mucus  of  the  urethra ;  floating  in  it  are  also  to  be  found 
a  greater  or  less  number  of  epithelial  scales. 

"  The  secretions,  however,  which  enter  into  the  composition 
of  the  ejaculated  fluid,  have  a  relative  proportion  to  each 
other ;  that  of  the  vesiculae  seminales  amounting  to  about 
four-sevenths;  that  of  the  testicles  and  vasa  deferentia  to 
about  one-seventh ;  while  the  remaining  portion  consists  of 
the  products  of  the  prostate  gland,  mucus  of  the  urethra,  etc. 

"Thef  semen  is  a  thick,  whitish  fluid,  having  a  peculiar 
odor.  It  consists  of  a  fluid  portion  called  the  liquor  seminis, 
and  solid  particles  termed  seminal  granules  and  spermatozoa. 

"  The  seminal  granules  are  round  corpuscles,  measuring 
j-jjVffth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

"  The  spermatozoa  are  the  essential  agents  of  impregnation, 
or  rather  the  elements  which  mix  with  the  elements  of  the 
egg  or  ovum,  by  which  process  fecundation  is  effected.  They 


Dr.  H.  J.  Jordan.     Lecture  on  the  Generative  Organs. 
Sexual  Physiology  by  R.  T.  Trail,  p.  22. 


5M  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

are  minute,  elongated  particles,  with  an  oval  extremity  or 
body,  and  a  long,  slender  filament.  They  move  in  an.  undu- 
latory  manner,  and  are  supposed  by  many  physiologists  to  be 
animalcules. 

"  The  ovum  is  exceedingly  minute,  measuring  from  ^J-^th 
to  120th  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  consisting  externally  of  a 
transparent  envelope,  the  zona  pellucida  or  vitelline  mem- 
brane, and  internally  of  the  yelk  or  vitellus,  a  small  vesicular 
body ;  imbedded  in  the  substance  of  the  yelk,  is  the  germinal 
vesicle,  and  this  contains  a  minute  substance  called  the  ger- 
minal spot.  The  germinal  vesicle  is  a  fine,  transparent 
membrane,  about  y^rth  of  an  inch  in  thickness ;  the  germinal 
spot  is  opaque,  of  a  yellow  color,  and  measures  ^eW^h  ^° 
^Vffth  of  an  inch. 

"The  ovisacs  contain  the  ova,  and  are  termed  graafrein 
vesicles.  They  vary  in  number  from  ten  to  twenty  ;  in  size 
they  vary  from  that  of  a  pin's  head  to  that  of  a  pea." 


tar*HattWHJ8 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTS.* 

(BY  MENDELEJEFF.) 

The  relations  between  the  atomic  weights  of  the  elementary- 
bodies  and  their  physical  and  chemical  characters,  have  been 
further  developed  by  Mendelejeif  in  an  elaborate  paper  (Ann. 
Ch.  Pharm.  Suppl.,  viii,  133-229). 

Mendelejeff  points  out  that  when  the  elements  are  arranged 
according  to  the  order  of  their  atomic  weights,  from  H  =  1  to 
U  =  240,  the  relations  between  their  properties  and  their 
atomic  weights  exhibit  the  form  of  a  periodic  function.  If,  for 
example,  the  fourteen  elements  whose  atomic  weights  lie 
between  7  and  36  be  thus  arranged : 

Li  =    7;     G  =  94;    B  =  11  ;      C  =  12  ;  N  =  14;  O  =  16  ;   P  =  19. 
Na  =  23;  Mg  =  24;  Al  =  27.3;  Si  =  28 ;  P  =31;  S  =32;  Cl  =  35.5, 

it  is  seen  at  once  that  the  characters  of  these  elements  vary- 
gradually  and  regularly  as  their  atomic  weights  increase,  and 
that  this  variation  is  periodical,  i.  e.,  varies  in  the  two  series  in 
the  same  manner,  so  that  the  corresponding  members  of  these 
series  are  analogous  to  one  another ;  Na  and  Li ;  Mg  and  G ; 
Al  and  B ;  Si  and  C ;  S  and  0,  etc.,  forming  similarly  consti- 
tuted compounds,  or,  in  other  words,  possessing  equal  atom- 
icity or  combining  capacity.  Moreover,  the  combining  capacity 
of  the  elements  in  each  series  increases  regularly  with  the 
atomic  weight,  the  first  members  forming  monochlorides,  the 
second  dichlprides,  the  third  trichlorides,  etc.,  or  corresponding 
oxides  or  oxychlorides. 

*  From  Watt's  Die.  Chem.,  2  Suppl. 


548  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

The  physical  characters  of  the  elements  and  their  correspond- 
ing compounds  likewise  exhibit  remarkable  regularity  when 
thus  arranged,  as  may  be  seen  with  regard  to  the  specific 
gravities  and  atomic  volumes  of  the  elements  in  the  second 
series  above  given : 


Na 

Mg 

Al 

Si 

P 

S 

Cl 

SD  ST.  . 

0.97 

1.75 

2.67 

2.49 

1.84 

2.06 

1.33 

At.  volume  . 

24 

14 

10 

11 

16 

16 

27 

Na2O 

Mg02 

A12O3 

Si02 

P308 

Sa03 

C12O7 

SD  er 

2.8 

3.7 

4.0 

2.6 

2.7 

1.9 

/9\ 

At.  volume  . 

22 

22 

25 

45 

55 

82 

(9) 

Most  of  the  other  elements  may  likewise  be  arranged  in 
groups  of  seven,  the  members  of  which  exhibit  similar  rela- 
tions, e.  g. : 

Ag  Cd  In  Sn  Sb  Te  I 

At.  weight..     108         112         113         118         122        125 (?)      127 
Sp.gr 10.5         8.6          7.4          7.2          6.7          6.2          4.9 

Such  a  group  of  seven  elements  is  called  by  Mendelejeff,  a 
small  period  or  series. 

The  elements  which  can  be  thus  seriated  are  contained  in 
the  first  seven  columns  of  the  table  on  page  547,  those  in  the 
same  column  having  equal  combining  capacity,  arid  therefore 
forming  oxides  of  corresponding  composition. 

On  comparing  the  several  series  in  this  table,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  corresponding  members  of  an  even,  and  of 
the  following  uneven  series  (the  fourth  and  fifth,  for  example) 
differ  from  one  another  in  character  much  more  than  the  cor- 
responding members  of  two  even  or  two  uneven  series  (e.  g., 
the  fourth  and  sixth,  or  the  fifth  and  seventh) ;  thus,  calcium 
resembles  strontium  much  more  than  it  resembles  zinc.  The 
members  of  the  even  series  are  not  so  distinctly  metalloidal 
as  those  of  the  uneven  series ;  and  the  last  members  of  the 
even  series  resemble  in  many  respects  (in  their  lower  oxides, 
etc.)  the  first  members  of  _the  uneven  series.  Thus,  chromium 
and  manganese  in  their  basic  oxides  are  analogous  to  copper 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


549 


Ii 


10 


till 


PH  IT*  o 
§«« 

O 


I  I 


S  U     «     ; !1 


S«pf 

o 


oo 

» 


l'« 


PQ 


I          00 
J> 


II      II     7, 

P     -     S 
S          S 


II     o      B 


bn 


6 


frt       O 
P    1      « 


w 


•d 


M 


rHCdCO-^JOOt-GOOSO 


550  THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 

and  zinc.  On  the  other  hand,  strongly  marked  differences 
exist  between  the  last  members  of  the  uneven  series  (haloids) 
and  the  first  members  of  the  following  even  series  (alkali- 
metals).  Now,  between  the  last  members  of  the  even  series 
and  the  first  members  of  the  uneven  series  there  occur,  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  the  atomic  weights,  all  those  elements 
which  cannot  be  included  in  the  small  periods.  Thus,  between 
Cr  and  Mn  on  the  one  hand,  and  Cu  and  Zn  on  the  other,  there 
come  the  elements  Fe,  Co,  Ni,  forming  the  following  transition 
series : 

Cr  =  52  ;  Mn  =  55  ;  Fe  =  56  ;  Co  =  59 ;  Ni  =  59 ;  Cu  =  63  ;  Zn  =  65. 

In  like  manner,  after  the  sixth  series  follow  the  metals  Ru,  Rh, 
Pd  ;  and  after  the  tenth,  03,  Ir,  Pt.  These  two  series  of  seven 
terms  each,  together  with  the  three  intervening  members,  form 
a  long  period  of  seventeen  members. 

As  these  intermediate  members  are  not  included  in  either 
of  the  seven  groups  of  short  period,  they  form  a  group  of 
themselves  (the  eighth),  some  of  the  members  of  which,  viz., 
Os  and  Ru,  are  capable  of  forming  oxides  of  the  form  R04  or 
R208.  This  group  contains  nine  metals,  viz. : 

Fe  =     56;  Ni  =     59;  Co  =     59. 

Ru  =  104;  Rh  =  104;  Pd  =  106. 

Os  =  193 ;  (?)  Ir    =  195  ;  (?)  Pt   =  197. 

These  metals  resemble  one  another  in  many  respects : 
(1.)  They  are  all  of  gray  color  and  difficult  of  fusion ;  the 
fusibility  increases  from  Fe  to  Co  and  Ni,  just  as  in  the  follow- 
ing series  Ru,  Rh,  Pd,  and  Os,  Ir,  Pt.  (2.)  They  possess  in  a 
high  degree  the  power  of  condensing  and  giving  passage  to 
gases,  as  seen  especially  in  nickel,  palladium,  iron,  and  plati- 
num. (3.)  Their  highest  oxides  are  bases,  or  acids  of  little 
energy,  which  are  easily  reduced  to  lower  oxides  of  more 
decided  basic  character.  (4.)  They  form  stable  double  cyanides 
with  the  alkali-metals.  Fe,  Ru,  and  Os  form  analogous  com- 
pounds K4RCy6  ;  Co,  Rh,  Ir  form  salts  having  the  general 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


551 


formula  K3RCy6  ;  Ni,  Pd,  Pt  form  salts  having  the  composition 
K2RCy4.  (5.)  All  these  metals  form  stable  me  tall  ammonium 
salts,  resembling  one  another  in  many  of  their  characters. 
Thus,  rhodium  and  iridium  form  salts  analogous  in  composi- 
tion to  the  roseocobaltic  salts  RX3.5NH3.  (6.)  Some  of  the 
compounds  of  these  metals,  especially  those  of  the  higher 
degrees  of  combination,  are  distinguished  by  characteristic 
colors. 

The  metals  Cu,  Ag,  Au  are  also,  on  account  of  analogous 
behavior,  included  in  the  eighth  group;  although,  according 
to  the  constitution  of  their  lower  oxides,  they  may  also  be 
included  in  the  first  group 

The  arrangement  of  the  elements  in  the  order  of  their 
atomic  weights,  and  the  composition  of  the  short  and  long 
periods,  is  more  clearly  seen  in  Table  II,  in  which  the  periods 
form  vertical  columns : 


K   =39 

Rb   =    85 

Cs  =  133 





Ca  =  40 

Sr    =    87 

Ba  =  137 

_ 

_ 

— 

?Yt    =    88? 

?Di  =  138? 

Er  =  178  ? 

_ 

Ti  =  48? 

Zr    =    90 

Ce  =  140? 

?La  =  180  ? 

Th  =  231 

V   =  51 

Nb   =    94 

_ 

Ta=  182 

_ 

Cr  =  52 

Mo  =    96 

— 

W  =  184 

IT    =240 

Mn=  55            — 

_ 

_ 

— 

Fe  =  56 

Ru   =  104 

— 

Os  =  195  ? 

_ 

TYPICAL  ELEMENTS. 

Co  =  59 

Rh  =  104 

_ 

Ir   =  197 

— 

Ni  =  59 

Pd    =  106 



Pt  =  198? 

H  =  l 

Li  =    7 

Na    =23 

Ca  =  63 

Ag  =  108 

— 

Au=  199? 

_ 

G  =    9.4 

Mg   =24 

Zn  =  65 

Cd    =  112 

— 

Hg=200 

— 

B   =  11 

Al     =  27.3 

— 

In    =  113 

_ 

Tl  =  204 

_ 

C   =  12 

Si     =28 

— 

Sn    =  118 

_ 

Pb  =  207 

— 

N  =  14 

P      =31 

As  =  75 

Sb    =  122 

— 

Bi  =208 

— 

0    =  16 

S       =32 

Se  =  78 

Te    =  125? 

_ 

_ 

_ 

F   =  19 

Cl     =  35.5 

Br  =  80 

J      =127 

— 

— 

— 

In  the  members  of  the  even  series  (Table  I),  the  metallic  or 
basic  character  predominates,  whereas  the  corresponding  mem- 
bers of  the  uneven  series  rather  exhibit  acid  properties.  Thus 
there  is  a  decided  difference  between  V,  Nb,  Ta,  from  the  even 
series  of  the  fifth  group,  and  P,  As,  Sb,  Bi,  from  the  uneven 
series  whose  highest  oxides  have  a  similar  constitution  R205, 


552  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

the  former  yielding  less  powerful  acids  than  the  latter.  The 
members  of  the  even  series  do  not,  so  far  as  is  known,  yield 
volatile  compounds  with  hydrogen  or  the  alcohol-radicles,  like 
the  corresponding  members  of  the  uneven  series;  thus  all 
attempts  to  prepare  the  compound  Ti(C2H5)4  from  TiCl4  have 
been  unsuccessful,  in  spite  of  the  great  resemblance  between 
TiCl4,  SiCl4,  and  SnCl4. 

The  position  of  the  second  series  seems  at  first  sight  to  be 
inconsistent  with  the  general  division  of  the  elements  into 
even  and  uneven  series ;  for  most  of  the  members  of  this  series 
possess  acid  properties,  form  compounds  with  hydrogen  and 
the  alcohol-radicles,  and  some  of  them  are  gaseous — in  all 
which  characters  they  rather  resemble  the  elements  of  the 
uneven  series.  It  must,  however,  be  observed,  with  regard  to 
this  series :  (1)  That  it  does  not  include  an  eighth  group,  like 
the  other  uneven  series ;  (2)  That  the  atomic  weights  of  the 
elements  included  in  it  differ  from  those  of  the  corresponding 
elements  of  the  following  series  by  only  16,  whereas  in  all  the 
other  series  this  difference  ranges  from  24  to  28.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  atomic  weights  of  successive  even  series  is 
generally  about  46,  but  in  the  elements  of  the  second  and 
fourth  series  it  is  only  32-36. 

Li     G     B     C     N     O     P     Na     Mg     Al      Si     P      S     C 
K     Ca   -  •    Ti    V    Cr   Mn    Cu      Zn  As    Se    Br 

Diff.    32     31    —    36    37    36    36     40       41       —     —    44     46    45 

These  peculiarities  explain  the  apparent  anomalies  above 
mentioned,  and,  moreover,  afford  additional  evidence  of  the 
dependence  of  the  properties  of  the  elements  on  their  atomic 
weights.  To  make  the  elements  of  the  second  series  analogous 
in  character  to  those  of  the  fourth,  their  atomic  weights  should 
indeed  be  smaller  than  they  actually  are.  Similar  anomalies 
may  also  be  observed  in  comparison  of  Na  with  Ca,  and  of  Mg 
with  Zn,  but  they  disappear  in  cases  of  P  and  As,  S  and  Se, 
Cl  and  Br,  where  the  differences  in  the  atomic  weights  conform 
to  the  general  rule. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL.  553 

In  consequence  of  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  elements  of 
the  second  series,  Mendelejeif  designates  them  as  typical 
elements ,  to  which  category,  also,  belong  hydrogen,  and  like- 
wise sodium  and  magnesium,  for  the  reason  just  stated.  These 
typical  elements  may  indeed  be  regarded  as  analogous  to  the 
lowest  members  of  homologous  series  (H20  and  CH40,  for 
example),  which,  as  is  well  known,  do  not  exhibit  all  the  prop- 
erties of  the  higher  homologues. 

The  preceding  considerations  likewise  explain  the  isolated 
position  of  hydrogen,  the  element  possessing  the  lowest  atomic 
weight.  According  to  the  form  of  its  salifiable  oxide  H20,  and 
of  the  salts  HX,  it  belongs  to  the  first  group  ;  its  nearest 
analogue  is  Na,  which  likewise  belongs  to  an  uneven  series  of 
the  first  group.  More  remote  analogues  of  hydrogen  are  Cu, 
Ag,  and  Au. 

Mendelejeif  also  develops  several  applications  of  the  law  of 
periodicity,  viz. :  (1.)  To  the  classification  of  the  elements. 
(2.)  To  the  determination  of  the  atomic  weights  of  elements 
whose  properties  are  but  little  known.  (3.)  To  the  determina- 
tion of  the  properties  of  hitherto  unknown  elements ;  those, 
namely,  which  might  be  expected  to  occupy  the  blank  spaces 
in  the  preceding  tables.  (4.)  To  the  correction  of  the  values 
of  atomic  weights.  (5.)  To  the  completion  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  combination-forms  of  chemical  compounds. 

For  the  details  of  these  applications,  we  must  refer  to  the 
original  paper. 

NOTE. — Mendelejeff  places  the  new  element  Gallium  between  Alumi- 
num and  Indium,  Group  III  (see  Table  I).  Gallium  was  discovered  by 
M.  Lecog  Boisbaudran  in  1875.  Gallium  forms  an  oxide  Ga8O8.  See  p.  5. 


554 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE 

OF  DEFUNCT  ELEMENTS,  WITH  REFERENCE  TO  ORIGINAL 

PAPERS. 

(By  H.  CAEEINGTON  BOLTON,  PH.D.*) 

NOTE. — Articles  referring  to  the  decease  of  the  element  are  marked  by  an  asterisk. 


DATE. 

ELEMENT. 

DISCOVERER. 

REFERENCE. 

1777 

Edelerde  

Bergmann  .  .  . 

1780 

Hydrosiderum  

Meyer  

Schrift,  Geo.  Nat.  Fr.  Berlin,  ii,  334  •  iii  38 

1784.. 
1788.. 
1790.. 

Saturnum  
Diamantspatherde.  .  . 
Australia  

Mounet  
Klaproth  .... 
Wedgwood  . 

Journ.  de  Phys.,  xxviii. 
Beschaft,  Ges.  Nat.  Fr.  Berlin,  viii,  St.  4. 
Seherer's  Allg.  Journal,  1790. 

1799.. 
1800 

Nameless  earth  
Agusteride     

Fernandez.  .  . 
Trommsdorff 

Scherer's  Allg.  J. 
j  Scherer's  Allg.  J.,  iv.  312. 

1801 

Pneum-alkali  

Hahnemann  . 

J  *Gehlen  s  N.  J.,  i,  445,  and  v. 
Scherer's  Allg.  J.  v 

1801.. 
1803 

iErythromium     ) 
or               V 
Panchromium.    ) 

Silenium      

DelRis  
Proust  

(  Annales  des  Mines  (1),  iv. 
•j  *Ann.  Chem.  Phys.  (2),  liii,  268. 
(  *Pogg.  Ann.,  xxi,  49. 

j  Journ.  de  Phys.,  Iv,  297  and  457. 

1805 

Niccolanum  . 

Richtcr  

I  *Gilbert  Ann.,  xiii,  127. 
Gilbert  Ann  ,  xix,  377 

(  Andronia  .              / 

j  Gehlen's  J    iv     Gilbert  Ann    xx  430 

1805.. 

j  Thelike      .  .           j 

Winterl  .  .  . 

1  *Gehlen's  J  (2)  iii  336 

1810 

Junonium  

Thompson  .  . 

I  Phil.   Mag.   (1),  xxxvi,  278.      Gilbert  An 

1815 

Thorium 

Berzelius 

(     xlii,  115.     Gilbert  Ann.,  xliv,  113. 
Schweigg  J    xxi  15     *Pogg  Ann    iv  14 

1818.. 
1818 

Vestium  or  Sirium  .  . 
Wodanium        

Von  Vest.  .  .  . 
Lampadius 

j  Gilb.  Ann.,  lix,  95  and  387.    *Trommsd.,  , 
1     iii,  1,  292.     *Gilb.  Ann.,  Ixii,  80. 

Gilb  Ann    Ix  99     *Gilb  Ann    Ixiv  338 

1820 

Crodonium  .  .  . 

Trommsdorff 

Gilb  Ann    Ixv  208     *Gilb  Ann    Ixvi  29( 

1821 

Anvre 

"Bru°natelli 

Gilb  Ann    Ixvii  335 

1828.. 

Ruthenium  

Osann  

Po^g.,  xiii,  xiv 

1828.. 

Pluranium  

Osann  

Po^g.,  xiii,  291. 

1828 

Polinium 

Osann 

Pof01    xiv  352 

*  Am.  Chem.,  July,  1870,  p.  1. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  555 

CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  DEFUNCT  ELEMENTS — (Continued). 


DATE. 

ELEMENT. 

DISCOVERER. 

REFERENCE. 

1836. 
1836  . 

Donium                .... 

Richardson.. 
Boase  

j  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  xix,  154. 
j  *Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  xxiii,  239. 

1  Thompson's  Records  General  Science,  iv,  20. 
|  Chem.  Centr.,  1836,  616. 

Treenium  

1843.. 

1845.  . 
1846.. 

Terbium  

Mosander  .  .  . 

Ivanberg..  .. 
H.  Rose  

j  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  xlviii,  220.    *Ann.  Chem. 
|     Pharm.,  cxxxi,  179,  and  cxxxvii,  1. 

j  Berzelius,  Jahresb.,  xxv,  140. 
{  *Journ.  pr.  Chem.,  Ivii,  145  ;  and  xcvii,  321. 

Pogg.  Ann.,  Ixix,  115.    *Pogg.  Ann.,  xc,  456. 

Norium    .... 

Polopium  

1848.. 
1850.. 

Ilmenium 

Herrmann.. 
Ullgren  

j  Journ.  pr.  Chem.,  xxxviii,  109  ;  and  xl,  457. 
(  *Pogg.,  Ann.,  Ixxiii,  449. 

(  Journ.  pr.  Chem.,  lii,  442. 
•<  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  Ixxvi,  239. 
(  *Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  Ixxxviii,  264 

Aridium  

1851.. 
1852.. 

1853.. 

Donarium     

Bergemann,. 
Owen  

j  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  Ixxx,  267. 
I  *Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  Ixxxiv,  237. 

j  Am.  J.  Sci.  (2),  xiii,  420. 
|  *Am.  J.  Sci.  (2),  xvi,  95  ;  xvii,  130. 

Am.  J.  Sci.  (2),  xv,  246. 

Thallium  

j  Nameless  metal  of  / 
|    platinum  group.  J 

Genth  

1854.. 

j  Nameless  earth  in  f 
1           zircons.          j 

SjOgren  

j  Journ.  pr.  Chem.,  Iv.  298. 
|  *Journ.  pr.  Chem.,  Ivii,  145. 

1857.. 
1860.  . 
1861.. 

Sulphurium 

Jones 

(  Mining  Journ.,  July  14,  1857. 
1  *Chem.  News,  vii,  263. 

Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  cxxxvi,  299. 

j  Phil.  Mag.  (4),  xxi,  86. 
1  Chem.  News,  iii,  129. 

Dianum 

Von  Kobell.  . 
Dupre  

(  Nameless  earth  of  | 
|     calcium  group.   ) 

1862.. 

Wasium  

Bahr  

j  Poger.  Ann.,  cxix,  572.    *Journ.  pr.  Chem., 
\     xci,  316.    *Compte's  Rendus,  Ivii. 

1862.. 

j  Nameless  metal  of  / 
|    platinum  group,   f 

Chandler  — 

Am.  J.  Sci.  (2),  xxxiii,  351. 

1864.. 

j  Nameless  earth  in  j 
(          zircons.          j 

Ny  lander  — 

Acta  Universit.  Lundensis,  1864. 

1864.. 

j  Nameless  earth  in  j 
|       limestones.       j 

Bischoff  

Pogg.  Ann.,  cxxii,  646. 

18S3.. 
1869.. 

Jargonium  .... 

Sorby  
Loew  

J  Chem.  News  (Am.  Repr.\  iv,  231. 
|  *Chem.  News  (Am.  Repr.).  Apr.,  1870. 

Annals  N.  Y.  Lye.  Nat.  Hist,  ix,  211. 

Nameless  earth  

556 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


PRICE   OF   METALS.* 

(Arranged  ly  H.  C.  BOLTON,  Pn.D.)f 


METAL 

STATE. 

VALUE  ra 
GOLD  PER 

LB.   AVOIB. 

PRICE  IN 
GOLD  PER 
GRAM. 

AUTHORITY. 

Vanadium              . 

Cryst.  fused  .... 
Wire 

$4792.40 
3261.60 
2446.20 
2446.20 
2446.20 
2228.76 
2935.44 
1671.57 
1630.08 
1576.44 
1522.08 
1304.64 
1250.28 
1032.84 
924.12 
738.39 
652.32 
498.30 
466.59 
434.88 
299.72 
239.80 
196.20 
196.20 
122.31 
108.72 
54.34 
4530 
22.65 
18.60 
16.30 
12.68 
3.80 
3.26 
3.26 
1.95 
1.00 
.36 
.25 
.22 
.15 
.10 
.06 
.OH 

$10.80 
7.20 
5.40 
5.40 
5.40 
4.92 
6.48 
3.96 
3.60 
348 
3.36 
2.88 
2.76 
2.28 
2.04 
1.63 
1.44 
1.10 
1.03 
.96 

.52 
.43 
.43 
.27 
.24 
.12 
.10 
.05 

.036 
.028 
.008 
.007 
.007 
.0043 

1 

1    Prices  1 
j    recent  < 

S. 
S. 
S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 

T. 
T. 
S. 
T. 
S. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 

T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 

S. 
S. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
S. 

T. 

aken  from 
quotations. 

Calcium 

Electrolytic  

Pure  

Cerium         

Fused  globules  . 
Globules  
Wire  

Lithium      

Lithium      

Erbium  

Fused  

Didymium 

Strontium     .          .  . 

Electrolytic  
Pure  

Indium     

Ruthenium  

Fused  

Columbium  
Rhodium    

Electrolytic  
Fused 

Barium1         

Thallium 

Osmium                     . 

Palladium  

Iridium  

Uranium  

Gold      . 

Titanium 

Tellurium 

Chromium      .    .  . 

<f 

Platinum        

st 

Mangan  ese 

K 

Molybdenum 

Wire  and  tape.  . 
Globules  

Magnesium  . 

Potassium  

Silver  

Bar  

Cubes        .  . 

Aluminium  
Cobalt 

Nickel            

Cadmium  

Crude  

Sodium 

Bismuth  
Mercury       .  .        ... 

Antimony  .  .      

Tin  

Copper 

Arsenic         .... 

Zinc         

Lead  

Iron  .  . 

*  S.  and  T.  annexed  to  the  price  per  gram  stands  for  Schuchardt  and 
Trommsdorff,  respectively,  and  indicates  the  source  of  the  data, 
f  Am.  Chem.,  June,  1875. 


TABLE     I.* 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS 
giving  the  Average  of  all  trustworthy  Analyses  published  up  to  August, 
1865,  by  Professor  EMIL  WOLFF,  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Agriculture, 
at  Hohenheim,  Wirtemberg.f 


SUBSTANCE. 


h 

«  - 

F 


I.— MEADOW  HAY  AND  GRASSES. 


1  Meadow  hay 

2  Young  grass 

3  Dead  ripe  hay 

Rye  grass  in  flower 

Timothy 

6  Other  sweet  grasses 

7  Oats,  heading  out 

in  flower 

9  Barley,  heading  out 

u        in  flower 

Winter  wheat,  heading  out 

u       in  flower 

Winter  rye,  heading  out 

Green  cereals,  light 

"         ''         heavy.... 

Hungarian  millet,  green | 

(Pcnicum  germ.) \ 


13 

7.78 

25.6 

7.0 

1 

9.32 

56.2 

1.8 

1 

7.73 

7.6 

2.9 

4 

7.10 

24.9 

4.2 

3 

7.01 

23.8 

2.7 

39 

7.27 

33.0 

1.8 

6 

9.46 

41.7 

4.4 

7 

7.23 

39.0 

3.3 

5 

8.93 

38.5 

1.7 

5 

7.04 

26.2 

0.6 

2 

9.73 

34.7 

1.9 

3 

6.99 

25.7 

0.5 

1 

5.42 

38.6 

0.3 

5 

7.20 

29.6 

1.5 

5 

9.21 

35.6 

3.4 

2 

7.23 

37.4 

4.9 

11.6 

6.2 

3.8 

10.7 

10.5 

3.4 

12.9 

4.4 

1.1 

7.5 

7.8 

8.1 

9.4 

10.8 

2.6 

5.5 

7.8 

3.5 

7.0 

8.3 

:i2 

6.7 

8.3 

2.9 

7.0 

10.1 

8.1 

6.0 

9.8 

1.6 

2.2 

4.9 
3.1 

7.4 
7.3 

3.1 

7.4 

14.7 

3.9 

6.6 

9.1 

4.7 

8.3 

8.1 

8.0 

10.8 

5.4 

5.1 

29.6 

8.0 

4.0 

10.3 

2.0 

0.7 

63.1 

5.7 

;;  <•; 

39.6 

5.4 

8.9 

35.6 

5.0 

4.4 

37.6 

4.1 

3.4 

27.9 

4.4 

2.7 

33.2 

4.0 

2.9 

31.2 

5.6 

2.9 

48.0 

3.5 

2.8 

41.9 

5.3 

1.9 

56.8 

2.8 

1.6 

32.0 

4.1 

41.4 

4.8 

4.S 

30.0 

5.6 

3.6 

29.1 

6.4 

II.— CLOVER  AND  FODDER  PLANTS. 


17  Red  clover 

a.  15-25  per  cent  potash 
6.25-35        "  " 

c.  35-50        "  " 

18  White  clover 

19  Lucern , 

20 

21 
22 

23  Green  vetches 

24  Green  pea,  in  flower. 

25  Green  rape,  young. . . 


Esparsette , 

Swedish  clover , 

Anthyttis  vulneraria. . 


6.72 
6.01 
6.74 
7.19 
7.16 
7.14 
5.39 
5.53 
5.60 
8.74 
7.40 
8.97 


34.51 
20.8 
29.8 
46.3 
17.5 
25.3 
39.4 
33.8 
10.3 
42.1 
40.8 
32.3 


l.fi 

12.2 

34  01    9.9 

3.0 

1.9 

18.2 

39.7     9.4 

3.8 

1.6 

11.8 

35.6 

10.6 

3.0 

1.4 

7.8 

27.3 

9.2 

2.2 

7.8 

10.0 

32.2 

14.1 

8.8 

1.1 

5.8 

48.0 

8.5 

6.1 

1.7 

5.8 

32.2 

10.4 

3.3 

1.5 

15.3 

31.9 

10.1 

4.0 

4.5 

4.6 

68.9 

7.0 

1.6 

2.9 

6.8 

26.3 

12.8 

3.7 

0.2 

8.2 

28.7 

13.2 

3.5 

3.8 

4.5 

23.1 

8.7 

16.3 

2.7 
1.2 
2.7 
2.5 
4.5 
2.0 
4.0 
1.2 
2.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.2 


3.7 
5.4 
2.9 
3.2 
3.2 
1.9 
3.0 
2.8 
0.2 
3.1 
1.8 
7.6 


*  The  following  eleven  tables  have  been  taken  from  "How  Crops  Grow,"  by  Johnson. 

t  From  Professor  Wolff's  Mittlere  Zusammensetzung  der  Asche,  alter  land-  und  forst- 
wirthschaftlictien  wichtigen  Stoffe,  Stuttgart.  1865.  The  above  table,  being  more  complete, 
and  in  most  particulars  more  exact,  than  the  author's  means  of  reference  enable  him  to 
construct,  and  being  moreover  likely  to  be  the  basis  of  calculations  by  agricultural  chem- 
ists abroad  for  some  years  to  come,  has  been  reproduced  here  literally.  The  references 
and  important  explanations  accompanying  the  original,  want  of  space  precludes  quoting. 
In  the  table,  oxide  of  iron,  an  ingredient  normally  present  to  the  extent  of  less  than  one 
per  cent.,  is  omitted.  Chlorine  is  often  omitted,  not,  because  absent  from  the  plant,  but 
from  uncertainty  as  to  its  amount.  Carbonic  acid  is  also  excluded  in  all  cases  for  the  sake 
of  uniformity  and  facility  of  comparison. 


558 


THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


COMPOSITION  OP  THE  ASH  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS. 


1 

SUBSTANCE. 

No.  OF 
ANALYSES. 

PER  CENT  OF 
ASH. 

POTASH. 

1 

MAGNESIA. 

I 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID. 

SULPHURIC 
ACID. 

SILICA. 

CHLORINE. 

III.— ROOT  CROPS. 


26  Potatoes 

27  Artichokes. . 


29  Sugar-beets 

30  Turnips 

31  Turnips* 

32  Ruta-bagas 

33  Carrots  

34Chiccory 

35  Sugar  beet-heads  t .. 


3.74 
5.16 
6.86 
4.35 
8.28 
7.20 
7.68 
6.27 
5.21 
4.03 


59.8 
65.4 
53.1 
49.4 

50^6 
51.2 
36.7 
40.4 


1.61    4.5 

...      2.7 

14.8 
9.6 

5.1 

8.9 

11.4 

3.9 

3.8 

2.1 

6.7 

2.6 

22.1 

5.3 

7.7 

6.3 

24.4    11.0 

2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
6.3 
10.4 
13.4 
9.7 
10.7 
8.7 
9.1 


19.1 
16.0 
9.6 
14.3 
13.3 
174 
15.3 
12.5 
14.5 
12.8 


6.6 
3.2 
3.3 
4.7 
14.3 
6.0 
8.4 
6.4 
9.2 
7.6 


2.8 
2.4 
6.6 
2.0 
4.1 
6.4 
5.1 
3.2 
3.7 
0.5 


IV.— LEAVES  AND  STEMS  OF  ROOT  CROPS. 


u       'October  
Beets         .  .        .... 

1 

ft 

5.12 
1596 

6.3 
29  1 

0.8 
21  0 

22.6 
97 

46.2 
11  4 

5.5 
5  1 

5.5 

7  4 

4.2 
4  g 

3.0 
11"  3 

Sugar-beets 

7 

17  49 

22  1 

16  8 

18  3 

19  7 

74 

8  0 

3  1 

5  7 

Turnips.               

16 

13  68 

229 

78 

4  5 

324 

89 

9  9 

3  8 

82 

Kohl-rabi  
C;irrots                

1 

7 

16.87 
1357 

14.4 
14  1 

3.9 
23  1 

4.0 
4  6 

33.3 
330 

10.4 
4  7 

11.7 

7  9 

10.5 
5  6 

3.9 
7  1 

Chiccory 

1 

1246 

60  0 

0  7 

32 

14  3 

9  o 

9  0 

1  0 

1  7 

2 

10  81 

48  6 

3  9 

3  3 

15  3 

15  8 

8  5 

1  2 

2  5 

Cabbage  -stalk  .  . 

1 

fi.46 

43.9 

5.5 

4.1 

11  \S 

209 

11  8 

1  1 

1.2 

V.— REFUSE  AND  MANUFACTURED  PRODUCTS. 


Sugar-beet  cake.  . 

7 

3  15 

366 

84 

5  6 

253 

10  2 

3  9 

6  2 

4  8 

a.  Common  cake  

91 

3.03 

25.0 

12.7 

272 

129 

58 

130 

b.  Residue  of  maceration  . 

<j> 

353 

353 

94 

11  8 

27  0 

6  0 

2  3 

0  9 

c.  Residue  from  centrifugal  ma-  \ 
chine                              .  .  .  .  f 

1 

3.11 

45.5 

9.8 

25.3 

13.0 

6.5 

... 

Beet  molasses 

3 

11  28 

71  1 

10  5 

04 

6  0 

0  5 

2  1 

10  1 

Molasses  slump$ 

1 

1902 

89 

8 

o 

g 

0  1 

1  7 

1  6 

Raw  beet  sugar  

1 

1.43 

33.3 

28.0 

8  5 

229 

09 

58 

Potato  slump:]:  

1 

11  10 

463 

66 

88 

6  2 

20  0 

7  3 

34 

2  1 

Potato  fiber§  

4 

0.99 

15.6 

76 

478 

239 

3  1 

1  3 

Potato  juice  ||  .  . 

«> 

2345 

695 

35 

1  0 

16  3 

3  6 

0  1 

7  5 

Potato  skins  t  
Fine  wheat  flour 

3 
1 

9.59 
047 

72.0 
360 

07 
09 

6.7 

82 

9.6 
2  8 

3.4 
52  0 

0.4 

2.7 

2.1 

Rye  flour  

1.97 

38.4 

1  8 

80 

1  0 

48  3 

Barley  flour 

233 

288 

2  5 

13  5 

28 

47  3 

3  i 

Basley  dust**  

5.62 

18.9 

1.4 

7  7 

25 

289 

200 

Maize  meal 

288 

35 

149 

6  3 

45  0 

Millet  meal  

1  35 

197 

2.3 

25.8 

473 

27 

.  .   . 

Buckwheat  grits 

072 

254 

59 

129 

23 

48  1 

1  7 

1  6 

Wheat  bran 

643 

24  0 

0  6 

16  8 

4  7 

51  8 

1  1 

Rye  bran 

822 

270 

1  3 

15  8 

35 

47  9 

.  .  . 

.  .  • 

Brewer's  grains    
Malt  .           ....                 

2 
1 

5.17 

278 

4.2 
17.3 

0.8 

10.1 
84 

11.6 

38 

38.0 
36  5 

0.8 

32.2 
33  2 

Malt  sprouts 

1 

656 

349 

1  4 

1  5 

21  0 

6  3 

29  5 

Wine  grounds  

1 

460 

53.4 

05 

32 

15  5 

15  5 

78 

05 

Grape  skins         .... 

9 

404 

494 

22 

61 

13  0 

20  8 

4  4 

3  5 

0  6 

Beer 

1 

37  5 

78 

4  9 

22 

32  7 

10  2 

*  White  turnips  in  the  original,  but  apparently  no  special  kind. 
t  Probably  the  crowns  of  the  roots,  removed  in  sugar-making. 
%  The  residue  after  fermenting  and  distilling  off  the  spirit. 
§  Refuse  of  starch  manufacture. 
!  Undiluted. 

*f  From  boiled  potatoes. 
**  Refuse  in  making  barley  grits. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


559 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS. 


S 

§ 

. 

I    i- 

SUBSTANCE. 

^ 

gg 

w 

§ 

!*' 

Ea' 

£ 

«l 

r 

I 

1 

i 

s 

1 

r 

8  u 
£ 

s 

OR 

i 

V.— REFUSE  AND  MANUFACTURED  PRODUCTS. 


69  Grape  must 

70  Rape  cake 

71  Liuseed  ca 

72  Poppy  cake 
73 1  Walnut  cake 


9 

6.59 

243 

0  1 

11  5 

10  9 

36  9 

3  3 

8  7 

ke  
e  .  .  .  .               ... 

1 
1 

6.24 
10.60 

23.3 
208 

1.4 
4  5 

15.9 
4  3 

8.6 
28  1 

35.2 

37  8 

3.4 
2  0 

6.5 
4  8 

ke 

1 

536 

33  1 

12  2 

6  7 

43  8 

1  2 

1  fi 

d  cake.  .  . 

1 

695 

354 

43 

46 

48?. 

1.1 

40 

VI.— STRAW. 


76  Winter  rye.                   

6 

4.81 

18.7 

33 

8.1 

77 

4  7 

1  9 

58  1 

77  Winter  spelt 

9 

5  56 

11  2 

04 

09 

48 

6  3 

1  8 

71  4 

3 

5  55 

234 

28 

8  9 

6  5 

2  6 

KK  q 

79  Barley 

17 

5  10 

21  6 

4.5 

24 

76 

43 

37 

53  8 

80  Oats            

6 

5.12 

9,90 

5.3 

4.0 

8.2 

4.2 

3  5 

48  7 

81  Maize                     

1 

549 

353 

1.2 

55 

105 

8.1 

5  2 

38  0 

82  Pea** 

5  74 

21  8 

53 

7  7 

37  9 

7  8 

5*6 

5  7 

83  Field  bean 

4 

7  12 

444 

3  8 

7  8 

23  1 

7  0 

0  2 

5  4 

84  Garden  bean 

5 

6  06 

37  1 

60 

52 

274 

78 

3  6 

4°7 

0 

6  15 

46  6 

2  2 

3  6 

18  4 

11  9 

53 

5  5 

86  Rape 

4.58 

25  6 

10.3 

57 

265 

70 

7  1 

6  7 

87;POPDV... 

1 

7,86 

38,0 

1.3 

6.5 

302 

8.5 

51 

11.4 

VII.— CHAFF,  ETC. 


89  Spelt.            

9! 

9.50 

9.5 

0.3 

2.5 

ft 

73 

23 

742 

90'  Barley     ... 

1 

1423 

77 

09 

1  3 

104 

2  0 

3  0 

70  8 

91  Oats 

1 

9  22 

13  1 

4  8 

2  6 

8  9 

0  3 

2  5 

59  9 

92  Maize  cobs 

1 

056 

47  1 

1.2 

4  1 

34 

44 

1  9 

264 

93lFlax-seed  hulls  .  .  . 

1 

6.62 

31.1 

4.3 

2,8 

29.6 

2,8 

48 

17.2 

VIII.— TEXTILE  PLANTS,  ETC. 


95 

m 

97 
M 

99 
10;) 
101 

Rotted  flax  stems      .            .... 

2 

3 
2 
2 
1 

12 

7 

2.40 
0.67 
4.30 
4.60 
9.87 
6.80 
24.08 

Flax  fiber                        .  . 

Entire  hemp  plant  .... 

Entire  hop  plant 

Hops  .  .              .         

Tobacco  .  .  . 

86.8 

9.0 


18.8 

2<>.2 

.",7.:: 


5.1 
4.8 
8J 

4.S 
3.2 
8.8 
2.2 
3.7 


7.1 
5.4 
5.4 
9.0 
9.6 
5.8 
5.5 
10.5 


22.3 
51.4 
63.6 
15.5 
43.4 
16.0 
16.9 
37.0 

11.5 
5.9 
10.8 
23-0 
11.6 
12.1 
15.1 
8.6 

6.C 
13.8 
6.2 
2.6 
7.6 
21.5 
15.4 
9.6 


IX.— LITTER. 


1021  Heath  

8 

4R1 

13.21     5.3 

84 

188 

51 

4,4 

352 

103  [Broom  (Spctrtiuiri)  

9, 

2.25 

36.5  !     2.5 

19,4 

171 

86 

gjf 

10.3 

104  Fern  (Aspidium) 

5 

701 

42  8     45 

77 

14.0 

9.7 

51 

6.1 

105  Scouring  rush  (Equisetum)  
106  Sea-weed  (Fucus)          

2 

8 

23.77 
14.39 

13.2      0.5 
14.5    24.0 

2.3 
95 

12.5 
13.9 

2.0 
3  I 

6.3 

940 

53.8 
1.7 

107  1  Beech  leaves  in  autumn  
108  Oak         kl       "        "        
109  Fir          "     (Firm*  sylvestris)  ... 
110  Red  pine  leaves  (Finns  picea)  ... 
11  liReed  (Arundo  plirarj  )  
112,Down  grass  (Psamma  arearia}..  . 
113  Sedge  (  Carex)  

6 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
11 

6.75 

4.90 
1.40 
5.82 
4.69 

'8'08 

5.2      0.6 
3.5      0.6 
lO.lj  .... 
1.5    .... 
8.6      0.2 
29.8      4.0 
332     7.3 

6.0 
4.0 
9.9 
2.3 
1.2 
3.8 
49 

44.9 
48.6 
41.4 
15.2 
5.9 
16.5 
53 

4.2 
8.1 
16.4 
8.2 
2.0 

I'l 

3.7 
4.4 
4.4 

2.8 
2.8 
3.6 
33 

33.9 
30.9 
13.1 
70.1 
71.5 
18.5 
31,5 

114  ;  Rush  (Juncus)  
115i  Bulrush  (Scirvus)..  . 

7 
2 

5.30 
8.65 

36.6!     6.6 
9.71  10.3 

6.4 
3.0 

9.5 
7.2 

6.4 
6.5 

8.7 
5.6 

10.9 
43.3 

560 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


COMPOSITION  OP  THE  ASH  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS. 


d 
fc 

SUBSTANCE. 

No.  OF 
ANALYSES 

PEK  CENT  OF 
ASH. 

POTASH. 

1 

MAGNESIA. 

M 

s 
3 

PHOSPHOEIC 
ACID. 

SULPHURIC 
ACID. 

SILICA. 

w 

a 

0 

X.— GRAINS  AND   SEEDS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS. 


117  Rye             

14 

2.03 

118  Barley 

34 

255 

119  Oats  .                  

"20 

3.07 

120  Spelt  with  husk       

9 

420 

121  Maize 

8 

1  42 

122  Rice  with  husk                       .   . 

3 

784 

123     "    husked  

8 

0.39 

124  Millet  with  husk 

9 

449 

125     "      husked  

1 

1.42 

126  Sorghum 

1 

1  86 

127  Buckwheat  

9, 

1.07 

128  Rape     seed 

15 

424 

129  Flax        " 

3 

3  65 

130  Hemp              

9, 

5  48 

131  Poppy           

1 

6.12 

132  Madia           

1 

133  Mustard 

3 

4  30 

134  Beet                            

1 

566 

135  Turnip 

1 

3  98 

135  Carrot           

1 

850 

137  Peas  ...                      

?0 

2  81 

138  Vetches  

1 

2  40 

139  Field  beans 

Q 

345 

140  Garden  beans  

q 

306 

141!Lentils        

1 

206 

1 

143  Clover  seed      .          

^ 

4  11 

144  Esoarsette  seed.  .  . 

1 

4,47 

31.1 

3.5 

12.2 

8.1 

46.2 

2.4 

1.7 



30.9 

1.8 

109 

2.7 

47.5 

2.3 

1.5 

^ 

21.9 

2.8 

8.3 

25 

32.8 

2.3 

27.2 

15.9 

3.8 

7.3 

3.8 

207 

1.6 

46.4 

j 

17.3 

1.8 

5.8 

2.6 

20.0 

2,6 

44.0 

\ 

27.0 

1.5 

14.6 

2.7 

44.7 

1.1 

2.2 

18.4 

4.5 

8.6 

5.1 

47.2 

0.6 

0.6 

23.3 

4.8 

13.4 

2.9 

51.0 

0,6 

3.0 

11.9 

1.0 

8.4 

1.0 

23.4 

0.2 

52.3 

18.9 

5.8 

18.6 

53.6 

1.5 

.  .'.. 

S0.3 

3.3 

14.8 

"1.3 

50.9 

"7.5 

23.1 

6.2 

13.4 

3.3 

48.0 

"2.1 

"i.7 

23.5 

1.1 

12.2 

13.8 

43.9 

3.6 

"i'.i 

0.3 

32.2 

1.8 

13.2 

8.4 

40.4 

1.1 

1.1 

0.1 

20.1 

0.8 

5.6 

23.5 

36.3 

0.2 

11.8 

0.1 

13.6 

1.0 

9.5 

35.4 

31.4 

1.9 

3.2 

4.4 

9.5 

11.2 

15.4 

7.7 

55  0 

15.9 

5.8 

10.2 

18.8 

39.0 

"4.7 

2.4 

0.4 

18.7 

17.3 

18.9 

15.6 

15.5 

4.2 

2.1 

9.4 

21.9 

1.2 

8.7 

17.4 

40.2 

7.1 

0.7 

19.1 

4.8 

6.7 

38.8 

15.8 

5.6 

5.3 

"3.3 

40.4 

3.7 

8.0 

4.2 

36.3 

3.5 

09 

2.3 

3C.6 

10.6 

8.5 

4.8 

38.1 

4.1 

2.0 

1.1 

40.5 

1.2 

6.7 

5.2 

39.2 

t    1 

1.2 

2.9 

44.1 

2.9 

7.5 

7.7 

30.4 

3.8 

0.8 

0.9 

27.8 

9.9 

2.0 

5.1 

29.1 

. 

1.1 

3.3 

33.5 

17.8 

6.2 

7.8 

25.5 

'  '  6.8 

0.9 

1.8 

37.3 

0.6 

12.2 

6.2 

33.5 

4.7 

2.4 

1.3 

28.6 

2.8 

6.6 

31.6 

23.9 

3.2 

0.8 

1.1 

XL— FRUITS   AND  SEEDS  OF  TREES,  ETC. 


145 

lit; 

147 
14S 
M9 
150 
151 
152 
(68 
154 
155 
166 

Grape  seeds  .     ... 

2 

2 
1 

2.81 
5.14 

28.6 
37.6 
21.8 
22.4 
22.8 
64.5 
58.9 
76.4 
35.7 
54.7 
51.9 
59.2 

Alder                      

White  pine  

Red  pine 

1 

Beech  nuts  .  .     

1 

0 

3.30 

Acorns 

Horse-chestnut  
green  husk       ...  . 

2 
2 
1 

2.36 

4.38 

Apple,  entire  fruit  

Pear,        "         " 

1 
1 



Cherry,    u         "     . 

Plum,       " 

1 

8.6 

33.9 

24.0 

2.5 

1.1 

1.6 

8.0 

30.7 

13.0 

3.4 

3.2 

7.1 

16.8 

1.5 

39.7 

11.7 

1.8 

15.1 

1.9 

46.0 

10.4 

10.0 

11.6 

24.5 

20.8 

"2.2 

1.9 

0.7 

5.4 

7.0 

16.2 

2.8 

1.1 

0.5 

11.6 

22.4 

1.4 

0.2 

1.0 

10.0 

6.3 

1.4 

0.6 

'26.1 

8.8 

4.1 

13.6 

6.1 

4.3 

8.5 

5.2 

8.0 

15.3 

5.7 

1.5 

2.2 

5.5 

7.5 

16.0 

5.1 

9.0 

0.5 

5.5 

10.0 

15.1 

3.8 

2.4 

XII.— LEAVES  OF  TREES. 


160  Walnut,  spring 


Nil 
162 
153 


Mulberry 

Horse-chestnut,  spring 


autumn 

Beech,  summer 


autumn 


Ii54  Oak,  summer 
165 


autumn 


166;  Fir,  autumn 

167 1  Red  pine,  autumn. . 


3.53 
7.17 
7.52 
7.72 
7.01 
4.83 
6.75 
4.60 
4.90 
1.40 
5.82 


19.6 

38.8 

19.6 

42.7 

Oft  ft 

•*o.o 
18.5 

"i'.s 

5.2 

0.6 

33.1 

3.5 

"6'.6 

10.1 

1.5 

.... 

13.5 


25.7 
21.3 

405 
26.9 
53.7 
36.5 
44.9 
26.1 


10.2 
23.4 

8.2 

21.1 

4.0 

7.8 
4.2 


8.1 

9.9,  41.41  16.4 
2.3l  15.2     8.2 


33.5 

2.9 

13.9 

1.2 

2.0 

15.2 

33.9 

4.4 

30.9 

13.1 

70.1 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


561 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS. 


1 

SUBSTANCE. 

No.  OF 

ANALYSES. 

1  PER  CENT  OF 
ASH. 

POTASH. 

1 

MAGNESIA, 

3 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID. 

1  SULPHURIC 
ACID. 

1 

1 

XIII.— WOOD. 


IfiR 
ICU 
170 
171 
172 
IVo 
174 
175 
1715 
177 
178 
179 
180 
181 
182 
18:! 
181 
185 
18(i 
187 

Grape 

8 

1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
9 

2.75 
1.60 
0.31 
0.65 
1.05 
1.45 

29.8 
6.5 
11.6 
16.1 
15.2 
14.1 
10.0 
19.8 
19.4 
15.3 
14,0 
11.4 
24.1 
21.9 
35.8 
12.0 
5.2 
15.3 
11.8 
15.8 

6.7 
14.3 
5.8 
3.4 
2.1 
2.2 
3.6 

"0.4 
5.6 
2.1 
13.7 
6.0 
1.6 
26.8 
9.9 
4.6 
7.7 

6.8 
5.7 
8.9 
10.8 
16.8 
108 
4,8 
7.5 
5.2 
8.1 
7.5 
10.1 
10.0 
7.7 
4.2 
5.7 
6.2 
5.9 
9.1 
24.5 

37.3 
573 
60.0 
56.4 
45.8 
48.0 
73.5 
54.0 
51.0 
55.9 
58.4 
50.8 
37.9 
47.8 
29.9 
7,1.0 
47.9 
50.1 
50.1 
27.1 

12,9 
2.2 
8.5 
5.3 
11.6 
12.3 
5.5 
9.3 
21.7 
12.2 
13.1 
16.4 
9.6 
3.3 
4.9 
4.6 
5.1 
5.5 
5.8 
3.fi 

2.7 
10.3 
0.3 
1.0 
0.7 
1.2 
1.4 
1.6 

"3.2 
1.5 
3.1 
5.4 
1.3 
5.3 
2.9 
3.0 
3.0 
2.3 
1.7 

0.8 
3.6 
4.8 
4.7 
6.7 
9.8 
1.1 
3.1 
0.7 
2.9 
2.0 
0.7 
6.2 
3.1 
5.3 
1.8 
2.0 
6.0 
15.0 
3.6 

0.8 
4.2 
0.6 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 

'7.4 

0.3 
0.1 
0.6 
6.7 

'7.5 

0.2 
4.0 
0.2 
0.4 
0.6 

Mulberry  

Birch 

Beech,  body-wood    .     . 

44        small  wood 

41        brush  

Oak,  body-wood  ...     . 

44     email  branches  with  bark  
Horse-chestnut  twigs,  autumn... 
Walnut  twigs,  autumn  

1 
1 
1 

5 

'sisi 

2.99 

Poplar,  young  twigs 

Willow,      u        44 

| 

Elm.           "        "       

1 

Elm   body-wood 

1 

Linden  

1 

Apple  tree  

2 
1 

2 
6 
1 

1.29 
0.25 
0.28 
0.31 
0.32 

Red  pine 

White  pine  

Larch.  .  . 

XIV.— BARK. 


188 
18!) 
I'.K) 
1!)1 
1  '.f.' 

19:5 

191 
195 
196 

Birch 

2 

1 

1.33 

3.8 
14.7 
24.2 
11.6 
2.2 
16.1 
5.3 
8.0 
3.0 

5.4 
0.4 

'io.i 

5.7 
4.2 
3.2 
1.0 

Beech 

Hor?e-chestnut,  young,  autumn  .  . 
Walnut                    "           " 
Elm  

1 
1 
1 

6.57 
6.40 

Linden        .                     . 

1 

Red  pine... 

1 
1 
3 

2.81 
3.30 
2.01 

White  pine    .  . 

Fir... 

8.2 
0.2 
4.0 
10.6 
3.2 
8.0 
4.7 
3.0 
1.4 


45.6 

57.9 
61.3 
70.1 
72.7 
60.8 
62.4 
69.8 
43.7 


20.1 

18.0 
1.1 
0.7 
8.9 
23 

15.7 
8.4 

31.1 


1.3 

7.2 
0.4 

7.2 
0.2 
1.0 
0.1 


562 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


TABLE      II. 

COMPOSITION  or  FRESH  OB  AIR-DRY  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS,  giving 
the  average  quantity  of  Water,  Sulphur,  Ash,  and  Ash-ingredients,  in 
1,000  parts  of  substance,  by  Prof.  WOLFF. 


d 

1 

B 

P 

SUBSTANCE. 

g 

S 

< 

1 

HP 

g^r; 

Be 

£~  V 

d 

| 

I 

•< 

5 

1 

1 

i 

J 

o«5 

$« 

CD 

1 

J 

02 

Meadow  hay. . . 
Bead  ripe  hay. . 

Red  clover 

White  clover. . . 
Swedish  clover. 

Lucern 

Esparsette 

Green  vetches. . 
Green  oats 


I.— HAT. 


17.1 
5.0 

19.5 


66.2 
56.5 
60.3 
46.5 
60.0 
45.3 
73.4 
61.8 


10.6 
15.7 
15.2 
179 
30.9 
24.1 


3.3 
2.3 
6.9 
6.0 
7.1 
3.5 
2.6 
5.0 
2.0 

7.7 
8.5 
19.2 
19.4 
14.8 
28.8 
14.6 
19.3 
4.1 

3.4  119.7 

0.5  141.8 


1.7  ,20.5 


II.— GREEN    FODDER. 


Meadow  grass,  in  blossom  
Young  grass  

700 
800 

23.3 
20.7 

6.0 
11  6 

1.6 
0.4 

1.1 
0.6 

2.7 
22 

1.5 
22 

1.2 

08 

6.9 

2  1 

1.9 
04 

0.6 

04 

700 

21  3 

53 

09 

05 

1  6 

1  7 

08 

84 

1  1 

07 

Timothy  

700 

21.0 

61 

06 

08 

20 

2.3 

0  8 

75 

1  i 

08 

Other  grasses                    

700 

21  8 

72 

0.4 

0.6 

1  2 

1  7 

1  0 

82 

09 

07 

Oats,  beginning  to  head    

8^0 

17.0 

7.1 

08 

06 

1.2 

1  4 

06 

4.7 

08 

03 

44     in  blossom 

770 

166 

6.5 

0.6 

05 

1  1 

1  4 

05 

55 

07 

0.4 

Barley,  beginning  to  head  

750 

22.3 

86 

0.4 

07 

1  6 

2.3 

07 

70 

1  2 

05 

44        in  blossom                     .... 

680 

225 

59 

01 

07 

14 

22 

07 

108 

08 

07 

Wheat  beginrino1  to  head 

770 

224 

78 

04 

03 

1  1 

1  7 

04 

9  4 

1  2 

0? 

44        in  blossom      .        

690 

21.7 

56 

0  1 

05 

07 

1  6 

04 

12  3 

06 

05 

Rye  fodder        

700 

16.3 

6.3 

0.1 

05 

12 

94 

02 

5  2 

Hungarian  millet.                

680 

23  1 

86 

1  9 

25 

1  3 

08 

67 

1  5 

800 

134 

46 

02 

1  6 

4  c, 

1  3 

04 

04 

0  5 

0  5 

White  clover    

810 

13.6 

24 

1  1 

14 

44 

20 

1  2 

06 

04 

06 

Swedish  clover 

815 

10  2 

35 

02 

1  6 

32 

1  0 

04 

0  1 

0  3 

753 

17.6 

45 

02 

1  0 

85 

1  5 

1  i 

0  4 

03 

08 

785 

11  6 

46 

0  2 

07 

37 

1  2 

04 

0  5 

03 

780 

12.3 

1.8 

0.5 

06 

85 

09 

02 

04 

Green  vetches 

820 

15  7 

66 

05 

1  1 

4  i 

20 

06 

03 

05 

03 

44      peas  
44      ranej... 

815 
850 

13.7 
13.5 

5.6 
4.4 

0.5 

1.1 
0.6 

3.9 
3.1 

1.8 
1.2 

0.5 
2.2 

0.4 
0.4 

0.2 
1.0 

0.6 

III.— ROOT    CROPS. 


Potato       

7^0 

9.4 

56 

0.1 

0.4 

02 

1.8 

06 

09 

03 

09, 

Artichoke       .                            

800 

103 

6  7 

03 

0  4 

1  6 

03 

02 

Beet 

833 

80 

4  3 

1  2 

0  4 

04 

0  8 

0  3 

02 

05 

01 

Sugar-beet  ...          

816 

8.0 

40 

0.8 

0  7 

05 

1  1 

04 

0.3 

02 

Turnip                          

999 

7  5 

30 

0  8 

03 

0  8 

1  0 

1  1 

02 

03 

04 

White  turnip*  

915 

6.1 

3.1 

0.2 

0  1 

08 

1  1 

04 

0.1 

0.4 

Kohl-rabi 

877 

95 

49 

06 

02 

09 

1  4 

08 

0  1 

0.5 

Carrot.          ...          

860 

8.8 

3.2 

1.9 

0.5 

09 

1.1 

0.6 

0.2 

03 

01 

Sugar-beet  headst                

840 

6.5 

1.9 

1  6 

07 

06 

08 

05 

0  1 

0.1 

800 

104 

42 

08 

0  7 

0  9 

1  5 

1  0 

06 

0.4 

*  No  special  variety? 


t  Crowns  of  sugar-beet  roots. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  563 

COMPOSITION  OF  FRESH  OR  AIR-DRY  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


SUBSTANCE. 

j 

, 

H 

| 

S 

MAGNESIA. 

1 

1  PHOSPHORIC 
ACID. 

1  SULPHURIC 
ACID.  . 

u 

02 

CHLORINE. 

ja 

IV.—  LEAVES  AND  STEMS  OF  ROOT  CROPS. 


Beet  tops. 
Sugar-beet  tops 
Turnip  tops.   . 
Kohl  rabi  tops 
Carrot  tops. . . 
Chiccory  tops. .. . 
Cabbage  heads 


nd  of  August  

825 

15.6 

93 

0.4 

2.6 

51 

1  0 

0.9 

1.2 

07 

rst  of  October  

770 

11.8 

0.7 

0.1 

2.7 

5.5 

06 

06 

05 

0  4 

907 

148 

43 

3  1 

1  4 

1  7 

0  8 

1  i 

0  7 

1  7 

38    .  . 

897 

180 

4.0 

3.0 

33 

36 

1  3 

14 

0  6 

1.0 

898 

140 

32 

1  1 

06 

4  5 

1  3 

1  4 

05 

1  2 

850 

253 

3  6 

1  0 

1  0 

84 

2  6 

3  0 

2  6 

1  0 

808 

26.1 

3.7 

60 

1  2 

86 

1  2 

2  1 

1  5 

1  9 

850 

187 

11  2 

0  1 

0  6 

2  7 

1  7 

1  7 

0  2 

0  3 

885 

12  4 

6  0 

0  5 

0  4 

1  9 

2  0 

0  1 

0  3 

LS... 

820 

11.6 

5.1 

O.fi 

0.5 

1.8 

2'.4 

0.9 

0.2 

0.1 

V.— MANUFACTURED   PRODUCTS  AND  REFUSE. 


692 

9  3 

23 

I  2 

b.  Residue  from  centrif.  machine 
c  Residue  of  maceration      .  . 

820 

885 

5.6 
4  1 

2.6 
1  5 

0.5 

04 

Beet  molasses  

1T5 

93.1 

66.2 

9.8 

Molasses  slump*                     .... 

907 

177 

15 

9 

Raw-beet  sugar  

43 

13.7 

4.6 

38 

Potato  slump*     .  .          .        .... 

947 

59 

2.7 

04 

Potuto  fibre4" 

806 

1  9 

03 

Potato  skinst  

300 

67.1 

48.3 

0.5 

Fine  wheat  flour             .        

138 

4.1 

1.5 

0.1 

142 

16  9 

6  5 

03 

Barley    our                   

140 

200 

5.8 

0.5 

113 

498 

94 

07 

140 

9  5 

2  7 

0  3 

Millet  meal                      

140 

11  6 

2  3 

03 

140 

62 

1  6 

04 

Wheat  bran         ..... 

135 

55.6 

133 

0.3 

Rye  bran                            

131 

71  4 

19  3 

09 

Brewer's  grains  
Malt 

768 
475 

12.0 
146 

0.5 
25 

0.1 

Dried  malt 

42 

26  6 

46 

Malt  sprouts        

0-?, 

596 

208 

Wine-gr  unds    ...                

650 

161 

86 

01 

600 

16  2 

80 

04 

Beer 

900 

39 

1  5 

03 

Wine.                     

866 

28 

1  8 

150 

560 

136 

0  1 

Linseed  cake      

115 

£52 

129 

08 

Poppy  cake           .  • 

100 

954 

198 

4  3 

136 

46.4 

154 

Cotton-seed  cake  .  .  . 

115 

61.5 

21.8 

VI.— STRAW. 


0.5 

0.5 
0.4 
0 

'6.5 
0.1 
4.5 
0.3 
1.4 
2.7 
38 
1.4 
3.0 
0.8 
9.4 
11.3 
1.2 
1.2 
2.2 
0.8 
0.5 
1.0 
0.2 
0.2 
6.4 
8.8 
4.1 
5.7 
26 

2.5 
2.5 

1.4 
1.1 
5.6 
2 
1.2 
0.4 
0.9 
6.4 
0.1 
0.2 
0.6 
1.2 
0.6 

0.1 
2.6 
2.5 
1.4 
0.5 
1.0 
0.9 
2.5 
2.1 
0.1 
0.2 
6.1 
4.7 
26.8 
3.1 
2.8 

1.0 
1.2 
0.7 
0.3 
0.6 

'i.2 
0.5 
2.3 
2.1 
8.5 
9.5 
14.4 
4.3 
5.5 
3.0 
28.8 
34.2 
4.6 
5.3 
0.7 
12.5 
2.5 
3.4 
1.3 
0.5 
20.7 
19.4 
36.1 
20.3 
995 

0.4 
0.5 
0.4 
0.1 
2.0 
0.3 
3.1 
0.4 

'6.3 

0.6 

0.5 
1.2 

... 

'  "6.6 

'  'o.'i 

0.2 
0.1 
1.8 

0.1 
9.4 
0.3 
0.8 
0.1 

1.4 

!.'.' 

0.6 

9  g 

0.3 
0.1 

' 

"6.6 

0.1 

.'.'.'. 

0.1 

8.8 
1.2 

0.7 
0.1 
0.1 
1.9 
1.9 
1.9 
0.5 
07 

3.9 

4.8 
8.8 

17.7 

"6.6 
0.4 
0.1 
4.9 
3.6 
4.6 
0.7 
2.5 

.... 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 

'o.'i 

0.3 

'o.'i 

'•'• 

Winter  rye  

154 

40.7 

76 

13 

1  3 

3.1 

1.9 

08 

987 

09 

Winter  spelt 

143 

477 

53 

02 

04 

23 

3.0 

0.9 

34.1 

Summer  rye          ... 

143 

47  6 

11  1 

1  3 

4  4 

3  1 

1.2 

26.6 

.. 

Barley  .... 

140 

439 

9.3 

2.0 

1  1 

3.3 

1.9 

1  6 

936 

1  3 

Oats         

141 

440 

97 

23 

1  8 

36 

1.8 

1.5 

21.2 

1  7 

Maize  

140 

47.2 

16.6 

0.5 

96 

5.0 

38 

95 

17.9 

3,9 

Peas             

143 

49  2 

10  7 

26 

88 

18.6 

3.8 

98 

98 

80 

07 

Field  bean 

180 

58  4 

25  9 

22 

46 

13  5 

4.1 

0.1 

3.1 

81 

9,9 

Garden  bean 

150 

51  5 

19  1 

3  1 

27 

14  1 

4  1 

1.8 

2.4 

2.7 

9  1 

*  Residue  from  spirit  manufacture. 
\  Refuse  of  starch  manufacture. 


$  From  boiled  potatoes. 

§  Refuse  from  making  barley  grits. 


564 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FRESH  OR  AIR-DRY  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


d 

o 

o 

1 

ri 

t» 

K 

B 

Ho 

P  B 

H 

b 

SUBSTANCE. 

1 

B 

1 

1 

fc 

w 

5 

S3 
§< 

iS 

So 

3< 

i; 

0 
02 

1 

3 

a 
b 

00 

Buckwheat 

R^pe 

Poppy 


VI.— STRAW. 


160  I  51.7 
170  I  38.0 
160  66.0 


24.1 
9.7 
25.1 


9.5 
10.1 
19.9 


2.81  4.0 
2.6  4.7 
7.5  1.7 


VII.— CHAFF. 


Wheat               .  ..          

138 

92.5 

8.4 

1.7 

1  9. 

1  9 

40 

751 

08 

Spelt                                      .  .. 

130 

827 

79 

02 

2.1 

2.0 

6.0 

1.9 

61  4 

Barley         -  

140 

122.4 

94 

1.1 

1  6 

19,7 

94 

37 

867 

Gate              .                         

143 

79.0 

10.4 

38 

2.1 

7.0 

02 

2.0 

47.3 

115 

50 

24 

0  1 

02 

02 

02 

0  1 

1  3 

02 

1  3 

Flax-seed  hulls  .  . 

120 

58.3 

181 

25 

1  6 

17.2 

1  6 

2.8 

1f;,0 

36 

1.8 

VIII.— TEXTILE  PLANTS,   ETC. 


Flax  straw  .  .                

140 

31  9 

11  8 

1.6 

2.3 

83 

43 

9,0 

2.2 

1.5 

Rotted  flax  stems                 .... 

100 

21  6 

1  9 

1  0 

1  2 

11  1 

1  3 

07 

30 

Flax  fiber 

100 

6  0 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

3  8 

0  7 

0  2 

0  3 

Entire  flax  plant         

250 

323 

11  3 

1  5 

29 

50 

74 

1  6 

08 

1  9 

300 

282 

5  2 

09 

2  7 

12  2 

3  3 

08 

2  1 

0  7 

Entire  hop  plant        ....            .  . 

250 

740 

194 

28 

43 

11  8 

90 

3.8 

15.9 

3.4 

120 

59  8 

223 

1  3 

21 

10  1 

9  0 

1  6 

9  2 

02 

Tobacco... 

180 

197.5 

54.1 

7.3 

20.7 

73.1 

7.1 

7.7 

19.0 

8.8 

Heath , 

Broom  (Spartium) , 

Fern  (Aspidiurri). 

Scouring  rush  (Equisetum) 

Sea- weed  (Fucus) 

Beech  leaves  , 

Oak  leaves  

Fir  leaves  (Pinus  sylvestris) 

Red  pine  leaves  (Pinus  picea) 

Heed(Arundophrag.) 

Sedgre  ( Carex) 

Rush  (Juncus) 

Bulrush  (Sdrpus) 


IX.— LITTER. 


36.1 

4.8 

1.9 

3.0 

6.8 

18.9 

6.9     0.5 

2.8 

3.2 

58.9 

25.2 

2.7 

4.5 

8.3 

204.4 

27.0 

1.0 

4.7 

25.6 

118.0 

17.1  28.3 

11.2  116.4 

57.4 

3.0     0.3 

3.4  25.8 

41.7 

1.5 

0.2 

1.7 

20.2 

11.8 

1.2 

1.1 

4.9 

48.9 

0.7 

.... 

1.1 

7.4 

38.5 

3.3 

0.1 

0.5 

2.3 

69.5 

23.1 

5.1 

2.9 

3.7 

45.6 

16.7 

3.0 

2.9 

4.3 

74.4 

7.2 

7.7 

2.2 

5.4 

l.G 
0.7 
3.0 
12.9 
28.3 
2.1 
1.8 
0.0 
1.4 
1.1 
2.8 
4.0 


12.7 

0.8 

1.9 

0.5 

3.6 

6.0 

110.0 

11.7 

2.0 

11.9 

19.5 

0.2 

12.9 

.... 

1.5 

0.5 

34.3 

275 

21.8 

'8.9 

5.0 

6.5 

32.2 

3.9, 

X.— GRAINS  AND  SEEDS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS. 


Rye 

149 

17  3 

54 

0  3 

Barley               

145 

21.8 

4.8 

0.6 

Oats                                         

140 

26  4 

4.2 

1  0 

Spelt,  with  husk  
Maize                            .                ... 

148 
136 

35.8 
123 

6.2 
33 

0.6 
02 

Rice  with  husk 

120 

69  0 

12  7 

3  1 

"      husked              

130 

3.4 

08 

02 

Millet  with  husk 

130 

39  1 

4  7 

0  4 

"       hulked               

131 

123 

2.3 

0.7 

140 

160 

42 

0.5 

141 

9.2 

2.1 

0.6 

Rape  seed                     

120 

37  3 

88 

0.4 

Flax  seed         

118 

32.2 

10.4 

0.6 

Hemp  seed          .            

122 

481 

9.7 

04 

PODDV  seed  .  .  . 

147 

52.2 

7.1 

0.5 

2.2 

1.9 
1.8 
1.8 
2.1 
1.8 
5.9 
0.5 
3.3 
23 
2.4 
1.2 
4.6 
4.2 
2.7 
5.0 

0.6 
0.5 
0.5 
1.0 
0.9 
0.3 
3.5 
0.1 
0.4 

8.2 
8.2 
7.2 
5.5 
7.2 
5.5 
32.6 
1.7 
9.1 
6.6 

0.4 
0.4 
0.5 
0.4 
0.6 
0.1 
0.4 

0.3 
0.3 
5.9 
12.3 

15.8 
0.3 
0.4 
01 

1.5 
1.7 
1.4 

1.7 

1.2 

0.1 
02 

20.5 

1.8 

0.2 
0.3 
5.2 
2.7 
11.3 
18.5 

8.1 
4.4 
16.4 
13.0 
17.5 
16.4 

'6.2 
1.3 
0.4 
0.1 
1.0 

1.2 

"6'.4 
0.4 
57 
1.7 

'6.2 
0.1 

'o.'i 

2.3 

'  8.2 
1.7 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  565 

COMPOSITION  OF  FRESH  OR  AIR-DRY  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


3 

1 

0 

W 

' 

R| 

-' 

1 

Sn 

p    • 

H 

SUBSTANCE. 

| 

. 

% 

4 

g 

w 

gs 

3 

0 

I 

•< 

^ 

< 

£ 

• 

3 

S 

02 

02 

Q 

crj 

X.— GRAINS  AND  SEEDS  OF   AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS. 


Mnstard  seed                .        

190 

37.8 

60 

29, 

39 

71 

14.7 

1  8 

09 

02 

Beet  seed 

140 

48.7 

91 

84 

9.2 

7.6 

76 

20 

1  0 

46 

190 

35.0 

77 

0.3 

3.0 

61 

14.1 

2.5 

0.2 

120 

74.8 

143 

36 

50 

990 

11.8 

42 

40 

25 

Peas                         

138 

24.2 

9.8 

0.9 

1.9 

1  9, 

88 

08 

02 

0.6 

136 

20.7 

63 

9.9. 

i  a 

0.6 

7.9 

0.9 

04 

02 

Field  beans                        

141 

296 

120 

04 

20 

1  5 

11  6 

1  5 

04 

08 

148 

26.1 

11.5 

08 

90 

90 

79 

1.0 

0.2 

03 

134 

17.8 

7,7 

1  8 

04 

09 

52 

09 

06 

138 

34.0 

11  4 

60 

9,1 

9,7 

8.7 

9,3 

0.3 

0.6 

Clover  seed              

150 

36.9 

138 

02 

45 

23 

124 

1.7 

09 

05 

Esoarsette  seed  .  .  , 

160 

37.G 

10.8 

1.1 

2.5 

11.9 

9.0 

1.2 

0.3 

0.4 

XI.— FRUITS  AND  SEEDS  OF  TREES,   ETC. 


120 

24.7 

71 

9,1 

84 

59 

06 

0.3 

Alder     "              

140 

442 

166 

07 

35 

136 

57 

1  5 

14 

180 

27.1 

69, 

97 

31 

67 

56 

06 

0.5 

560 

9.6 

62 

01 

05 

07 

1.6 

0.2 

02 

"•      'dried                        

158 

183 

11  8 

01 

1  0 

1  3 

33 

05 

04 

Horse-chestnuts,  fresh  
"                green  husk  
Apple,  entire  fruit  
Pear         u         *k                ••        .... 

492 
818 
840 
800 

120 

8.0 
2.7 
4.1 

71 
6.1 
1.0 
99, 

'6.7 
0.4 

0.1 
0.1 

0.2 
02 

14 
0.8 
0.1 
03 

2.7 

0.5 
0.4 
06 

0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
09, 

'6i" 

0.1 
0.1 

Cherry     u         " 

780 

43 

2.2 

01 

02 

0.3 

0.7 

02 

04 

Plum.       "         "     

820 

4.0 

2.4 

0.2 

0.4 

0.6 

0.2 

0.1 

0.1 

.... 

0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.8 
0.4 

0.1 

XIL— LEAVES  OF  TREES. 


670 

117 

93 

1 

06 

30 

1  2 

0.1 

41 

Horse-chestnut,  spring  
autumn       

700 
600 

21.5 
30.1 

8.3 
59 

08 
24 

4.6 
122 

5.0 
9,5 

1.3 

05 

0.6 
49, 

0.8 
1  9 

700 

23.2 

99 

1.1 

69, 

49 

0.6 

0.3 

0  1 

*fc        autumn  

600 

2J.4 

76 

28 

153 

1  1 

0.8 

06 

09, 

750 

12.1 

99, 

09, 

1  1 

44 

09 

04 

18 

0  1 

550 

305 

1.6 

0.2 

1.8 

137 

1.3 

1  1 

103 

01 

700 

138 

46 

1  9 

36 

1.7 

04 

06 

600 

19.6 

07 

01 

08 

95 

1  6 

0.9 

61 

550 

63 

0.6 

0.6 

26 

1.3 

0.3 

0.8 

03 

Red  pine,  autumn... 

550 

26.2 

0.4 

0.6 

4.0 

2.1 

0.7 

18.4 

XIII.— WOOD.    (  AIR-DRY.) 


150 

23.4 

70 

1.6 

1.6 

8.7 

3.0 

0.6 

0.2 

0.2 

Mulberry              ....        ..        .... 

150 

13.7 

09 

9,0 

08 

7.8 

0,3 

1.4 

0.5 

0.6 

Birch 

150 

2.6 

0.3 

09, 

02 

1  5 

02 

0.1 

150 

5.5 

0.9 

02 

06 

3.1 

03 

01 

03 

150 

89 

1  4 

02 

1  5 

41 

1  0 

01 

06 

150 

12  3 

1  7 

03 

1  3 

59 

1  5 

01 

19 

Oak  bodv-wood      .         ...          .  . 

150 

5.1 

05 

02 

0,2 

3,7 

0.3 

0.1 

0.1 

.... 

150 

10  2 

2  0 

08 

5  5 

09 

02 

0.3 

Horse-chestnut,  young  wood  in  | 
autumn                  f 

150 

28.1 

5.5 

1.5 

14.3 

5.9 

0.2 

0.4 

Walnut        .              .... 

150 

25.5 

39 

9,0 

149, 

3.1 

0.8 

07 

0.1 

150 

11.0 

1.3 

09, 

06 

78 

05 

0,3 

0.2 

Red  piue          

150 

2.1 

01 

0,6 

0.1 

1.0 

01 

0.1 

0.1 

ISO 

24 

04 

02 

0.1 

1.2 

0.1 

01 

02 

Fir 

150 

26 

0.3 

0.1 

09, 

1  3 

02 

0.1 

0.4 

Larch  .  .  . 

150 

2.7 

0.4 

0.2 

0.7 

0.7 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

.  .. 

... 

566 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FKESH  OK  AIE-DRY  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


SUBSTANCE. 

WATER. 

B 
• 

< 

POTASH. 

I 

MAGNESIA. 

H 

' 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACIT>. 

1  SULPHURIC 
ACID. 

SILICA. 

CHLORINE. 

1  SULPHUR. 

XIV.— BARK. 


Birch                             

150 

11-8 

04 

0.6 

0.9 

5.9, 

O.R 

0.2 

9.3 

0.2 

Horse-chestnut,  young  in  autumn  . 
Waluut  youn"  in  autumn          .... 

150 
150 

55-9 

54-4 

13-5 
6.3 

2.2 

5.8 

34-3 
38-1 

3-9 

a.a 

0-6 
0-1 

0-6 
0-4 

0-7 
0.2 

Red  pine               

150 

23-9 

1.3 

1.0 

1.1 

14-9 

O.H 

0-2 

3.8 

0.1 

White  nine 

150 

28-1 

9.3 

0.9 

0.8 

19.0 

0.7 

0-5 

3.3 

0.3 

Fir....   

150 

17-1 

0-5 

0-2 

0-2 

7-5 

1-4 

0-1 

5-3 

TABLE      III. 

PROXIMATE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS, 
giving  the  average  quantities  of  Water,  Organic  Matter,  Ash,  Albumi- 
noids, Carbohydrates,  etc.,  Crude  Fiber,  Fat,  etc.,  by  Professors  WOLFF 
and  KNOP.'* 


SUBSTANCE. 

WATER. 

|| 

I 

ALBUMI- 
NOIDS. 

CARBOHY- 
DRATES, Exc4 

CRUDE 

FIBRE.  § 

fe 

HAY. 


Meadow  hay,  medium  quality 

Aftermath 

Red  clover,  full  blossom 

"      ripe 

White  clover,  fulJ  blossom 

Swedish  or  Alsike  clover  (Trifolii 

"         clover,  ripe 

Lucern,  young 


hybriduiri) 


14.3 
14.3 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 


79.5 
79.2 
77.1 
77.7 
74.8 
75.0 
78.3 
74.6 


8.2  j  41.3 

9.5  45.7 

13.4  !  29.9 

9.4  '  20.3 

14.9  34.3 

15.3  29.2 

10.2  23.1 


8.7  |  19.7  |  32.9 


30.0 
24.0 
35.8 
48.0 
25.6 
30.5 
45.0 
22.0 


2.0 
24 
3.2 
2.0 
3.5 
3.3 
2.2 
3.3 


*  LandwirthscTiaftticher  Kalender,  1867,  through  Knop's  Agricultur-Chemie,  1868, 
pp.  715-720.  This  Table  is,  as  regards  water  and  ash,  a  repetition  of  Table  II,  but  includes 
the  newer  analyses  of  1865-7.  Therefore  the  averages  of  water  and  ash  do  not  in  all  cases 
agree  with  those  of  the  former  Tables.  It  gives,  besides,  the  proportions  of  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous  compounds,  i.  e.,  albuminoids  and  carbohydrates,  etc.  It  also  states 
the  averages  of  crude  fibre  and  of  fat,  etc.  The  discussion  of  the  data  of  this  Table  belongs 
to  the  subjects  of  food  and  cattle-feeding.  They  are,  however,  inserted  here,  as  it  is  be- 
lieved they  are  not  to  be  found  elsewhere  in  the  English  language. 

t  Organic  matter  here  signifies  the  combustible  part  of  the  plant. 

t  Carbohydrates,  etc.,  include  fat,  starch,  sugar,  pectin,  etc.,  all  in  fact  of  organic  mat- 
ter, except  albuminoids  and  crude  fibre. 

§  Crude  fibre  is  impure  cellulose. 

II  Fat,  etc.,  is  the  ether  extract,  and  contains,  besides  fat,  wax,  chlorophyll,  and  in  some 
cases  resins. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  567 

PROXIMATE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS. 


SUBSTANCE. 

w 

U 

3  S 

s! 

1 

H 

"*«     ^ 

pq  ^ 

p  s 

$ 

K^ 
OS 

1 

^ 

II 

M  M 

O  S 

c2 

HAY. 


Sand  lucern,  early  blossom  (Medicago  intermedia).  ,  . 
Esparsette  in  blossom                  .... 

ie.7 

16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
143 
14.3 

14.3 
14.3 
14.3 

14.3 
14.3 

143 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 

77.2 
77.1 
76.1 
77.3 
75.0 
76.3 
73.8 
75.5 
77.7 
75.8 
77.9 
81.2 
83.3 
80.2 
80.7 
81.1 
80.4 
79.0 

75.8 
79.2 
81.0 

80.3 
80.2 

80.6 
78.6 
79.8 

78.3 
79.9 

6.1 
6.2 
7.2 
6.0 
8.3 
7.0 
9.5 
7.8 
5.6 
7.5 
7.8 
4.5 
2.4 
5.5 
5.0 
4.6 
5.3 
6.7 

9.9 
6.5 

4.7 

5.4 
5.5 

5.1 
7.1 
5.9 

7.4 
5.8 

15S 
13.3 
12.2 
14.6 
14.2 
14.3 
12.0 
7.8 
14.6 
15.3 
8.7 
9.7 
10.1 
9.5 
14.8 
11.6 
9.6 
10.6 

11.1 
10.2 
10.4 

8.9 
9.9 

8.9 
8.4 
6.4 
52 
9.5 

26.9 
36.7 
30.1 
36.5 
35.3 
36.8 
39.8 
41.7 
29.2 
37.2 
51.4 
48.8 
47.2 
48.0 
35.0 
40.7 
42.0 
39.5 

35.3 
38.9 
37.5 

40.2 
36.7 

39.1 
37.6 
42.6 
42.8 
41.7 

35.1 
27.1 
33.8 
26.2 
25.5 
?5.2 
22.0 
26.0 

as.9 

26.1 
16.9 
22.7 
25.9 
22.6 
31.0 
28.9 
27.2 
29.0 

29.4 
30.2 
33.2 

31.2 
33.6 

32.6 
32.6 
308 
30.3 

28.7 

Incarnate  clover,  in  blossom  (Trifolium  incarnatum) 
Yellow          "       "       "        (Medicago  lupvlina)  
Vetches  in  blossom                     .... 

Peas,        "        "        

... 

Field  spurry,  in  blossom  (Spergula  arvensis)  
"         "       after  blossom  

Serradella,        '*          "       (Ornithopus  sativus)  
"           before        " 

Italian  rye  grass  (Lolium  italicum)  
Timothy  (PMeum  pTdtanse) 

I 
i 

2 

i 

Early  meadow  grass  (JPoct  annucf)          

Crested  dog's-tail  (  Cynosurus  cristatus)  
Soft  brome  grass  (Bromus  mollis)  

Orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata) 

Barley  grass  (Hordeitm  pTatense)           

Meadow  foxtail  (Alopecurus  pratensis)  

Oat  grass,  French   rye  grass  (Arrnenathemm 
avenaceum)  

Barter  Schw'ngel  (Festuca  ?)  

Sweet-scented     vernal    grass     (Anthoxanfhum 
odoratum) 

Velvet  grass  (ffolcus  lanatus) 

Spear   grass,  Kentucky  Blue   grass  (Poo,  pra- 
tensifi) 

Rough  meadow  grass  (Poo,  trivictlis)  

Yellow  oat  grass  (Avena  jlavescens)    ....        .... 

Quaking  grass  (  Briza  media)  

Average  of  all  the  grasses.  .  . 

STRAW 


Winter  wheat. 

"       rye  . . . 

"       spelt, . 

"       barley 
Summer  barley 


Oat 

Vetch  fodder 

Pea 

Bean 

Lentil 

Lupine 

Maize  . . 


with  clover 


14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
173 
14.3 
14.2 
14.0 


82.5 
79.7 
80.2 
78.7 
77.7 
S0.7 
79.7 
81.7 
77.7 
79.2 
81.4 


CHAFF    AND    HULLS. 


Wheat 

Spelt 

Rye 

Barley 

Oat... 

Vetch 

Pea 

Bean 

Lupine  .  . . 

Rape 

Maize  cobs 


14.3  !  73.7 

14.3  77.2 
14.3  78.2 
14.3  72.7 
14.3  67.7 


15.0 
14.3 
15.0 
14.3 
10.3 
10.3 


77.0 
79.7 
77.0 
82.9 

77.5 
83.2 


12.0 
8.5 
7.5 
13.0 
18.0 
8.0 
6.0 
8.0 
2.8 
8.5 
2.8 


2.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.0 
3.0 
60 
2.5 
7.5 
6.5 
10.2 
14.0 
4.9 
3.0 


4.5 
2.9 
3.5 
3.0 
4.0 
8.5 
8.1 
10.5 
2.5 
3.5 
1.4 


30.2 

48.0 

27.0 

540 

27.7 

50.5 

29.8 

48.4 

32.7 

43.0 

34.7 

37.5 

38.2 

40.0 

28.2 

44.0 

35.2 

40.0 

33.5 

34.0 

27.2 

36.6 

34.7 
39.0 

41.8 
40.0 

33.2 


32.5 
36.6 
29.5 
47.2 
40.0 
44.0 


36.0 
41.5 
46.5 
30.0 
34.0 
36.0 
35.0 
37.0 
33.0 
34.0 
37.8 


1.4 


568  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

PROXIMATE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS. 


SUBSTANCE. 

WATER. 

II 

| 

ALBUMI- 
NOIDS. 

I 

II 

| 

GREEN    FODDER. 

Grass  before  blossom 

75  0  '  22  Q 

21 

3  0  '  129 

70     ft  a 

"       after           "         

69.0 

29.0 

2.0 

25    1ft  n 

11  5 

0  7 

Red  clover,  before  blossom  .  .  . 

83.0 

15.5 

1.5 

3.3 

7  7 

45 

0  7 

"            full             "         

78.0 

20.3 

1.7 

3  7 

86 

80 

0  8 

White  clover  full         " 

805 

17  5 

20 

3  5 

80 

60 

0  8 

Swedish  clover,  early  blossom  

85.0 

13.5 

1  5 

33 

57 

45 

0  6 

"           "        full         " 

820 

16  2 

1  8 

3  3 

63 

66 

0  6 

Lucern,  very  young  

81.0 

17.3 

1  7 

45 

78 

50 

0  6 

"       in  blossom 

74  0 

940 

20 

4  5 

7  0 

125 

0  7 

Sand  lucem.  early  blossom  .... 

78  0    20  1 

1  9 

4  0 

66 

95 

0  8 

Esparsette  m              " 

80  9     1N  r> 

1  5 

32 

88 

6  5 

0  6 

Incarnate  clover,  in     "       (Trlfolium  incarnatum). 

81.5 

16.9 

1.6 

2.7 

67 

7.5 

06 

Yellow  clover,  in         "       (Medicago  lupulina)  
Serradella,         "         "       (  Ornit/iopus  sativus)  

80.0 
80.0 

18.5 

18.7 

1.5 
1.8 

3.5 
3.6 

9.0 
7.0 

60 

8.1 

0.8 
0.4 

Vetches,             "          *'        

82.0 

16.2 

1.8 

3  1 

76 

55 

0  6 

Peas                  u         u 

81  5 

170 

1  5 

3  2 

82 

56 

0  6 

Oats,  early  blossom       

81.0 

17.6 

1.4 

2.3 

88 

65 

0  *) 

Rye 

729 

25.5 

1  6 

33 

14  9 

73 

0  9 

Maize,  late  end  August        ....        .        

84.3 

822 

14.6 

16  7 

1.1 
1  t 

0.9 
1  i 

8.7 
10  9 

5.0 

47 

0.5 

0  5 

li     '  early  "         ^ 

Hungarian  millet,  in  blossom  (Panicum  germanicum) 

65.6 
740 

32.0 
25  1 

2.4 
09 

5.9 
25 

15.0 
153 

115 
73 

1.5 
1  4 

Sorcfhum  vitlg&re        

77.3 

21.6 

1.1 

29 

11  9 

67 

Fiftifl  spurvy  in  blfissoni 

800 

180 

20 

23 

104 

53 

0  7 

Cabbage        

89.0 

9.8 

1.2 

1  5 

6.3 

20 

0  4 

"        stumps 

820 

16  1 

1.9 

1  1 

122 

28 

0  8 

Field-beet  leaves  

905 

6.7 

1.8 

1  9 

4.6 

13 

0  *, 

Carrot  leaves                      .     .       .        

82  2 

14  2 

36 

3  2 

80 

30 

1  0 

70  0 

28  0 

2  0 

6  0 

15  5 

65 

1  5 

Artichoke  stem           

800 

173 

27 

33 

106 

34 

0  8 

Rape  leaves..., 

dry 

75.5 

245 

20.0 

47.5 

8.0 

2.0 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS. 


Jerusalem  artichoke                         

80.0 

189 

1  1 

20 

15  6 

1  3 

0  5 

Turnip  chervil  ?  (Koerbelriibe) 

76  0 

23  1 

09 

3  2 

17  0 

1  0 

06 

Kohl-rabi  .  .                         ...               .... 

88.0 

10  8 

1  2 

23 

73 

1  2 

0  2 

Field  beets  (about  3  lt,s  weight) 

880 

11  1 

09 

1  1 

9  1 

0  9 

0  1 

Sugar  beets  (1-2  Ibs  )         ..                           ... 

81  5 

177 

08 

1  0 

154 

1  3 

0  1 

Ruta-bagas  (about  3  Ibs  ) 

870 

120 

1  0 

1  6 

93 

1  1 

0  1 

Carrot  (about  %  Ib  )        

850 

140 

1  0 

1  5 

108 

0° 

Giant  carrot  (1  2  Ibs  ) 

870 

122 

0  8 

1  2 

9  8 

1  2 

0  2 

Turnips  (StoppelrBbe)        

91  5 

77 

08 

08 

59 

1  0 

0  1 

Turnips  (Turiiipsrube) 

920 

72 

0  8 

1  1 

5  1 

1  0 

0  1 

Parsnip  

88.3 

11.0 

0.7 

1.6 

84 

1  0 

0^ 

Pumpkin  .  .  , 

94.5 

4.5 

1.0 

1.8 

2.-8 

1.0 

01 

GRAINS  AND  SEEDS. 


Winter  wheat        

I'M 

836 

20 

Wheat  flour 

12  6 

86  7 

0  7 

Spelt              .  .         

148 

81  3 

3.9 

Winter  rye 

14  3 

83  7 

2.0 

Rye  flour       .     .  •  .... 

140 

84.4 

1.6 

Winter  barley             .   . 

143 

834 

23 

14  3 

83  1 

26 

Oats 

14  3 

827 

30 

Maize.  . 

14.4 

83.5 

2.1 

13-0 
7    11.8 
10.0 
11.0 
10.5 
9.0 
9.5 
12.0 
10.0 


7.5  |  76.5 


67.6 

74.1 

54.8 


65.9 
66.6 
6C.9 
68.0 


0.9 

0.5 

3.0 

1.5 

0.7 

1.2 

16.5 

1.5 

3.5 

2.0 

1.5 

1.6 

8.5 

2.5 

7.0 

2.5 

10.3 

6.0 

5.5 

7.0 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  569 

PROXIMATE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS. 


,g 

SUBSTANCE. 

« 

IB 

S«' 

a  ^ 

H     • 

s 

$ 

& 

s 

IB 

a| 

O  fc 

1 

GRAINS  AND  SEEDS. 


Millet 

Buckwheat 

Vetches 

Peas 

Beans  (field) 

Lentils  

Lupines , 

Acorns  without  shell,  dry 

"        with  "     fresh  ... 

Chestnuts  without  shell,  fresh 

Madia  seed 

Flax  seed 


Hemp  seed 

Poppy  seed 

Horse  chestnut 


14.0 
14.0 
14.3 
14.3 
14.5 
14.5 
14.5 
20.0 
56.0 
49.2 
8.4 
12.3 
11.0 
12.2 
14.7 
30.0 


83.0 
83.6 
83.4 
83.2 
82.0 
82.5 
82.0 
78.4 
43.0 
49.0 
86.9 
82.7 
85.1 
83.6 
78.3 
68.8 


3.0 

14.5 

62.1 

6.4 

3.0 

2.4 

9.0 

59.6 

15.0 

2.5 

2.3 

27.5 

49.2 

6.7 

2.7 

2.5 

22.4 

52.3 

9.2 

2.5 

3.5 

25.5 

45.5 

11.5 

2.0 

3.0 

23.8 

52.0 

6.9 

2.6 

3.5 

34.5 

33.0 

14.5 

6.0 

1.6 

5.0 

68.8 

4.6 

4.3 

1.0 

2.0 

36.5 

4.5 

2.3 

1.8 

3.0 

45.2 

0.8  j  2.5 

4.7 

22.9 

46.0 

18.0  41.0 

5.0 

20.5 

55.0 

7.2  37.0 

3.9 

19.4 

55.4 

10.3  40.0 

4.2 

16.3 

55.2 

12.1 

as.e 

7.0 

17.5 

54.7 

6.1  j41.0 

1.8 

10.5 

58.3 

4.0  |2.30 

REFUSE. 


700 

26.6 

3.4 

18 

18.5 

6.3 

09, 

^        "        u    residue  from  centrifugal  machine  .  .  . 
*fc       lt       *4         **         u     maceration          

82.0 
92.6 

16.8 
66 

1.2 

08 

1.0 
0.8 

12.2 
4.4 

3.6 
1.4 

0.1 
01 

Potato  slump          

94.8 

46 

06 

1.0 

3.0 

0.6 

0.1 

89.0 

105 

05 

2.1 

6.8 

1.6 

04 

89.0 

10.5 

or> 

2.0 

7.2 

1.3 

1  9, 

Molasses  slump         

92.0 

63 

1  7 

1.2 

5.1 

76.6 

999, 

1  9, 

4.9 

11.1 

6.2 

1  6 

8.0 

85.2 

68 

23.0 

44.7 

17.5 

95 

47  5 

50  8 

1  7 

6.5 

39  5 

43 

1  5 

4.2 

931 

2.7 

8.8 

76.3 

8.0 

9,5 

Wheat  bran                            

13.1 

81  8 

51 

14.0 

50.0 

17.8 

3.8 

12.5 

830 

4.5 

14.5 

53.5 

15.0 

3.5 

Rape  cake                   •  

15.0 

776 

7,4 

28.3 

33.5 

15.8 

9.0 

11.5 

806 

79 

28.3 

41.3 

11.0 

10.0 

150 

78.1 

69 

28.5 

37.1 

12.5 

85 

10.0 

81  6 

84 

32.5 

37.7 

11.4 

8.1 

10.5 

85.5 

4.0 

27.0 

36.5 

22.0 

6.2 

Beechnut  cake              

10.0 

848 

5.2 

24.0 

313 

20.5 

7.5 

u           u     without  shells          

12.5 

798 

77 

37.3 

36.9 

5.5 

7.5 

16.7 

79,5 

108 

8.0 

64.5 

Potato  fibre  .  .  . 

82.6 

17.1 

0.3 

0.8 

15.0 

1.3 

0.1 

COFFEE,   TEA. 


Coffee  bean 

Chocolate  bean  . 
Black  China  tea 
Green  "  " 


12.0 
11.0 
15.0 
15.0 


85.0 
79.0 
79.0 


7.0  |  10.0 
4.0  I  20.0 
6.0  5.0 
6.0  5.0 


49.0 
52.0 
32.0 
27.0 


34.0  112.6 
13.0  44.0 
40.0  2.0 
45.0  2.0 


570 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


TABLE    IV. 
DETAILED    ANALYSES    OF    BREAD    GRAINS. 


ill  of 

K 

P 

P 

•<  n  S 

£! 

go 

g 

•<  <j 

z§« 

• 

ANALYST. 

Si 

1 

gj 

t-' 

*$ 

SSs 

s 

i 

< 

03 

O 

£ 

m 

E* 

WHEAT. 

From  Elsass 

14.6 

59  7      7212      17      1  fil   14  0  BmiPsiTiP-fliilt. 

"      Saxony               .... 

11.8 

64^4 

1.4 

2.6 

2  5 

1.6 

15.6  Wunder. 

"      America 

10.9 

63.4 

3  8 

1.2 

8.3 

1.6 

10.8  Poison. 

"      Flanders.... 

10.7 

61.0 

9.2 

1.7 

14.6iPeli2ot. 

"     Odessa 

14.3 

59  6 

6.3 

l!5 

1.7 

1  4 

15.2 

t. 

"      Tanganrock  
"      Poland 

13.6 
21.5 

57.9 
53.4 

7.9 
6.8 

1.9 
1.5 

2.3 

1  7 

1.6 

1.9 

13.2 

41 

"      Hungary 

13  4 

62  2 

5  4 

1  1 

1.7 

1.7 

14.5 

41 

Egypt  

20.6 

55.4 

6.0 

1.1 

1.8 

1.6    14.8 

44 

RYE. 

From  Hessia                 

13  6 

50.5 

8  9 

0  9 

10.1      1.8    15.0  Fresenius. 

"      France  

11.6 
9.1 

56  5 
64.9 

10.2 
0.4 

1.9 
2.3 

3.5 
3.5 

2.2 

1.4 

14.1  Payen. 
18.3  A.  Miiller. 

u      Saxony  .  . 

41              a 

9.6 

56.7 

6.4 

2.1 

8.5 

3.3 

16.5  Wolff. 

From  Salzmunde,  Prussia. 


10.5 

13.2 

9.3 


BARLEY. 


50.3 
53.7 
60.4 


5.5|  2.0|  13.6 
4.2  2.6  11.5 
1.2  2.0  9.7 


15.7  Wolff. 
12.0  Poison. 
15.0iGrouven. 


OATS. 


8.8 
15.7 
10.2 

55.4 
32.2 

2.5 

6.4 

9.6 

2.7 
4.1 

2.7 

14.6 
12.9 
12.6 

A.Muller. 
Krocker. 
Anderson. 

6.1 

mi 

10.0 
]AT. 

BUCKTV 

Husked,  from  Vienna  

2.6 
3.6 
13  1 

78.9 
76.7 

3.8 
4.3 

0.9 
1.8 
3.9 

1.0 
1.8 
3.5 

'2.5 
2.0 
2.4 

12.7 
13.7 
13.0 
14.2 
14.0 

Bibra. 

Boussingault. 
Horsford  &  Krocker. 
Zeuneck. 

UnhusJced  

8.5 

S7.8 
45.0 

7.1i  0.4 

22.6 

From  Saxony 
"  America 
"  Galacz 


MAIZE. 


8  8 

58.0 

5.3 

9  9, 

4.9 

3  9 

I 

8  8 

54  4 

2  7 

4  6 

15  8 

1  7 

9.1 

49  5 

2.9 

4  5 

20.4 

1  8 

land  .  . 

51  2 

6  7 

3  8 

12.5 

10.5iHellriegel. 
12.0!  Poison. 
11.8       " 
10. 6  Bibra. 


RICE. 


11      Patna 

7  21  79  9 

i  6 

0  1 

41      Piemont        .          ... 

7.8.    .. 

0.2 

14     East  Indies  

5.0]  73.9 

2.3 

0.9 

0.9 
0.5 
3.4 
2.0 


0.5 
0.9 
0.3 


14. 6  j  Boussingault. 
9.8|Polsou. 
13.7|Peligot. 
14.0,Bibra. 


Hwked,  Hagenau 

"        Nuremberg  . . 


20.6 
10.3 


MILLET. 


...I  3.0 
57.0    11.0    8.0 


2.4 
2.0 


2  21  14.0  Boussingault. 
.    12. 2  Bibra. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


571 


TABLE    V. 

DETAILED  ANALYSES  OF  POTATOES,  by  GROUVEN. 

(Agricultur-Chemie,  2te  Auf.,  p.p.  495  and  355.) 


WHITE  POTATOES,  NEWLY  DUG. 

VAKIOUS  SORTS. 
AVERAGE  OP 
19  ANALYSES. 

UNMANURED. 

MANURED. 

Water 

74.95 
0.471 
0.04  I  _  o  n 
0.29  f  ~  2>11 
1.81  J 
0.76 
2.00 
0.07 
17.33 
1.90 
0.88 

78.01 
0.891 
0.03  1  _  o  lq 
0.25  f  -  3'19 
2.02  J 
1.56 
1.50 
0.05 
13.40 
1.24 
1.05 

76.00 
2.80 

1.81 

0.30 
15.24 
1.01 
0.95 

Albumen                      

Gliadin  anfl  Mucidin  (r') 

Vegetable  Fibrin               .            

Organic  acids                

Fat                                                        .... 

Starch                                      

Cellulose 

Ash 

100. 

100. 

572 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


1    !g|    11     8    §88    S'8     11s     88S 


III    IS     8 

(jieo-^      coco       id 


ISI  II 


is!?T     ^  §13    21s 

pod         d      p'p'o      pop' 


di-<d     do       o     do*d     do      odd      odd 


•eaaag 


^HCO         ° 


^  G$  O  O          O  CC  < 

TT  IQ  CO  OC  O  O  O  ( 

THOO       oiccs       TTT-II 


m  saioy 
OIKVOHQ  'w 


•saiorarenaiv 


mat     TH  o  os 


T-I        OSi-H        Oi-iOS         00       OSOOO        OTI 


do     odd      o'     odd     do      odd      ddo'S 

| 


s      iq  >q      i-j  T-; 


o     ooo 


d     do'     odd       o     odd 


>0  OOd  MT4TH       || 


S      SScS 
d      odd 


t^op     t^c^S       1-1      -<fojco      ioeo       S' 

1O1O       OIO5O         CO        OO«C(N        **>o         <D ' 
T^TH'       ^^TH'         <M'       T-«  TH' «'        <N  Gt         -rli 


od     dod 


•  t-         COr)'  t-          COTj*  CO 


i  i-- 


^« 


I  f«  I"  i 

Hi      02  S       ^ 

TH        (?j  SO       •>*  10 « 


el  - 


oooid     TH 


i   B 


:8f 

s^a 


THO« 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


5Y3 


iil  §8  II ;  i   1  sss  §8   11 


O       CO  O'*          OT-IO 
CO        111  £SP 

£    S*£3     88£ 


IOOO'TH     co'ffi     »od 


-Hsy 


TT  O  O        t*fc 

do  d,     d  d 


•saaag 


000       00 


odd       d  d  d 


SS 
o'd 


•      TH*     odd       THo'd 


d     odd       d< 


-d     ^ 


5SS    81 

•$i  oo     TH  • 


CO          CO  SO 


rl<'       «5CO       THrHC*:         t-       55SS          ^SS       *°S          r^'S 


0< 

S< 

«O  O  TH  ( 


-nay 


OOO        00 


omvoao  'rcao 
•saiaoa-.viJ.oaj 


odd     do 


o     ooo       ooo     oo       oo 


<N»C-*     eor-i       ww 

^.^S    J3S     SS 

1O  d  rH       C<  O          CO  TP 


oJ      T-IO      ooo     oo       oo 


;,_;,-;     r-Jd     o'ddd      d     ddi-J 


THTH  00 


Hc-arons    S»^    ^R    «^^.^     3 

'       Tflrici       COO       CO>C05t"         CO       GOOOO 


574 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


§g    88 


S8S        8    8 


g 


•saaxxvpf 
aiaaiosKi  ivxoj, 


•HSV 


•asoxoaj 


•asoin'i 
-733  emv  srnng 


•saaag 


irf  10 


11 


!       e  s 


03       5 


aiamog  ivxoj, 


•sxKaiaaaoKi 

-HSV  aismog          -..5 


0       0 


•KOIXVNiaKOQ 

KI  saioy 


4--QIOV  aaaj 


IOCS 


o'o 


«     5; 

T-(  TO 

«o     c- 

do 


d  d     d  TH'     d  T-;  ( 


oi»       «d  t- 


o     o     s 


d     d 


5    8 
§    5 


|| 

Is 


S. 
w 


dsome,  rath 
y  delicate,  la 


.s 

§  5 

E     t[ 

I  i 

i 

E      c 
^     | 

j 

| 

« 

^ 

1     I 

Large  H 


r  'i|ij 

g, ,  i  in 

a     I  s^i 


1  - 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


575 


TABLE     VII. 

FRUITS  ARRANGED  IN  THE    ORDER   OF    THEIR    CONTENT    OF 
SUGAR  (Average).— (FRESENIUS.) 


PER  CENT. 

Peaches 1.6 

Apricots 1.8 

Plums 2.1 

Eeineclaudes 3.1 

Mirabelles 3.6 

Raspberries 4.0 

Blackberries 4.4 

Strawberries 5.7 

Whortleberries 5.8 


PEE  CENT. 

Currants 6.1 

Prunes 6.3 

Gooseberries 7.2 

Red  pears 7.5 

Apples 8.4 

Sour  cherries 8.8 

Mulberries 9.2 

Sweet  cherries 10.8 

Grapes 14.9 


TABLE    VIII. 

FRUITS    ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER   OF    THEIR    CONTENT    OF 
FREE     ACID     EXPRESSED    AS    HYDRATE    OF    MALIC    ACID 


(Average). — (FRESENIUS.) 

PER  CENT. 

Red  pears 0.1 

Mirabelles 0.6 

Sweet  cherries 0.6 

Peaches 0.7 

Grapes 0.7 

Apples 0.8 

Prunes  0.9 

Reineclaudes 0.9 

Apricots 1.1 


PER  CENT. 

Blackberries 1.2 

Sour  cherries 1.3 

Plums 1.3 

Whortleberries 1 .3 

Strawberries 1.3 

Gooseberries 1.5 

Raspberries 1.5 

Mulberries 1.9 

Currants 2.0 


TABLE     IX.       . 

FRUITS  ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  THE  PROPORTIONS  BE. 
TWEEN  ACID,  SUGAR,  PECTIN  AND  GUM,  ETC.  (Averages). 
—(FRESENIUS.) 


FRUITS. 

ACID. 

SUGAR. 

PECTIN,  GUM,  ETC. 

1  6 

3  1 

Apricots                       .  .                 

1  7 

64 

Peaches 

23 

11  9 

Raspberries  .  .          .... 

27 

1  0 

Currants                      

30 

01 

Reineclaudes  

34 

11.8 

Blackberries     ...       .                       ..... 

87 

1  2 

Whortleberries 

4  3 

04 

Strawberries           .            .  .           .            ... 

44 

0  1 

Gooseberries 

49 

08 

Mulberries  

49 

1.1 

Mirabelles  .  .          .               ... 

62 

99 

Sour  cherries 

6  9 

1  4 

Prunes  

70 

44 

Apples 

11  2 

56 

Sweet  cherries  . 

173 

2.8 

Grapes  

202 

20 

Red  pears 

946 

444 

5T6 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


TABLE    X. 

FRUITS  ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  THE  PROPORTIONS  BE- 
TWEEN WATER,  SOLUBLE  MATTERS,  AND  INSOLUBLE 
MATTERS  (Averages).— (FRESENius.) 


FRUITS. 

WATER. 

SOLUBLE 
MATTERS. 

INSOLUBLE 
MATTERS. 

Raspberries 

100 

9  1 

69 

Blackberries             .     .   . 

100 

93 

6.5 

Strawberries 

100 

94 

52 

Plums     

100 

9.7 

0.9 

Currants 

100 

11  0 

66 

Whortleberries  

100 

12.1 

16.9 

Gooseberries 

100 

122 

36 

Mirabelles                

100 

13.0 

1.5 

Apricots                   .                              

100 

133 

2  1 

Red  pears  ...        ....          

100 

143 

5.5 

Peaches 

100 

14  6 

2  1 

Prunes        ....                   

100 

15.3 

3.2 

Sour  cherries 

100 

16  5 

1  3 

Mulberries               

100 

166 

1.5 

Apples 

100 

16  9 

3  6 

Re'neclaudes     ....         

100 

185 

1.2 

Cherries 

100 

186 

1  5 

Grapes  

100 

22.8 

5.8 

TABLE    XI. 

PROPORTION  OF  OIL  IN  VARIOUS  AIR-DRY  SEEDS. 
(According  to  BERJOT.) 

(KNOP'S  Agncultur-Chemie,  p.  725.) 
(The  air  dry  seeds  contain  10-12  per  cent,  of  hygroscopic  water.) 


Colza,  common .      40-45 

"      Schirmraps 44 

"      red  India 40 

"      white 40 

Flax 34 

Poppy , 40-30 

Sesame : 53 

Mustard,  white  30 

black 29 

Hemp 28 

Peanut 38 


Gold  of  Pleasure. .. 35 

Watermelon 36 

Charlock . .  15-42 


Orange 

Colocynth . . . 

Cherry 

Almond 

Potato 

Buckthorn... 

Currant 

Beechnut . . . . 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


577 


TABLE    XII. 
ARTIFICIAL    FRUIT    ESSENCES. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  parts  of  each  ingredient  to  be 
added  to  100  parts  of  alcohol  (all  chemically  pure). 

(DINGLEK'S  Polytechnic  Journal) 


SUBSTANCE. 

PEACH. 

< 

g 

S3 
A 

CHEBBY. 

BLACK  CHEBBY. 

LEMON. 

PS 

£ 

1 
O 

«1 

I 

g 

§ 
B 

• 

RASPBEBBY. 

STBAWBEBBY. 

MELON. 

PINEAPPLE. 

Glycerine  

f> 

4 

s 

9 

5 

10 

10 

4 

10 

4 

I 

3 

| 

Chloroform 

1 

1 

? 

1 

0 

1 

Nitric  ether 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Aldehyde 

0 

5 

0 

0 

0 

? 

1 

1 

2 

1 

Acetate  of  ethyl     

5 

5 

| 

io 

10 

5 

5 

1 

5 

5 

5 

Formiate  of  ethvl 

5 

1 

1 

9 

1 

1 

1 

Butyrate  of  ethyl 

5 

10 

o 

] 

I 

5 

4 

r, 

Valerianate  of  ethel 

f) 

5 

5 

r, 

5 

1 

1 

-( 

CEuanthylate  of  ethel 

•-> 

1 

4 

1 

2 

10 

1 

1 

-\ 

1 

10 

Salicylate  of  methyl  ... 

? 

? 

1 

1 

t 

1 

Acetate  of  amyl 

10 

10 

1 

g 

Butyrate  of  amyl    

1 

1 

i 

10 

Valerianate  of  amyl 

10 

10 

Essence  of  orange     .     ... 

10 

Alcoholic   "]  Tartaric  acid 

10 

1 

5 

5 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

S 

1 

1 

the  cold  of  J  Benzoic  acid 

1 

2 

1 

578 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


GLYCERINE   AS  A   SOLVENT. 

Klever  has  estimated  the  solubilities  of  a  number  of  sub- 
stances in  glycerine.     The  following  are  his  results. 

At  the  ordinary  temperature,  100  parts  of  glycerine  dissolve : 


98  parts  of 

Sodic  carbonate. 

16  parts  of 

Ferrous  lactate. 

60 

Sodic  borate. 

15 

Oxalic  acid. 

50 

Potassic  arseniate. 

10 

Cupric  acetate. 

50 

Sodic  arseniate. 

10 

Benzoic  acid. 

50 

Zincic  chloride. 

10 

Boracic  acid. 

50 

Tannin. 

10 

Baric  chloride. 

50 

Urea. 

8 

Sodic  dicarbonate. 

40 

Alum. 

8 

Ferrous  tartrate. 

40 

Potassic  iodide. 

7.5      " 

Mercuric  chloride. 

40 

Zincic  iodide. 

6.7     " 

Cinchoninic  sulphate. 

35 

Zincic  sulphate. 

5.5     " 

Tartar  emetic. 

33 

Potassic  cyanide. 

5 

Calcic  polysulphuret. 

30 

Cupric  sulphate. 

4 

Strychnic  nitrate. 

27 

Mercuric  cyanide. 

3.5      " 

Potassic  chlorate. 

25 

Potassic  bromide. 

3 

Atropin. 

25 

Ferrous  sulphate. 

2.25    " 

Brucin. 

22.5     " 

Strychnic  sulphate. 

1.90    " 

Iodine. 

20 

Morphinic  acetate. 

1 

Veratriu. 

20 

Plumbic  acetate. 

0.50    " 

Cinchonin. 

20 

Arsenious  acid. 

0.50    " 

Quinin. 

20 

Arsenic  acid. 

0.45    " 

Morphin. 

20        " 

Ammonic  carbonate. 

0.25    " 

Quininic  tannate. 

20 

Sodic  chlorate. 

0.25    " 

Strychnin. 

20 

Hydroammonic  chlorate. 

0.20    " 

Phosphorus. 

20 

Hydromorphinic  chlorate. 

0.10    " 

Sulphur. 

,      FORMUL/t 
OF  FREQUENTLY  OCCURRING   SUBSTANCES. 

Acrolein C3H40. 

Alcohol C2H60  (Ethylic). 

Alizarin CIOH603,2H20  (Strecker). 

Aniline C6H5,H2N. 

Antichlor Na2S203  (Hyposulphite). 

Anthracene  or  paranapthalin C,4H  I0  (Anderson). 

Argols KHC4H406  (Bitrartrate). 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  579 

Asparagin •    •-, .  .C4H8N203,H20. 

Atropia CI7H23N03  (Planta). 

Ball  soda,  1st  product  in  making. . .  Na2C03. 

Barilla Na2C03  (crude). 

Bleaching  powder  or  Javelle  water .  CaCl3  4-  CaCl202. 

Benzol C6H6. 

Caftein  or  thein C8H  ION402,H20  (Strecker). 

Calamine ZnC03. 

Calomel HgCl. 

Camphor C,0H,  e^* 

Cellulin  or  cellulose C ,  8H300 , 5. 

Chalk.. CaC03. 

Chloral  or  trichoraldehyd C2C13HO. 

Chloraniline. . . (C6H4C1)H2N. 

Chloroform CHC13. 

Cinchonia C20H24N20. 

Cinnabar HgS. 

Codeia C ,  8H2 ,  N03. 

Copperas  or  green  vitriol FeS04. 

Corrosive  sublimate HgCl^. 

Cream  of  tartar. . . KHC4H406. 

Creasote  or  kreasote CI2H  ,602?(Gorup-Besanez) 

Dextrin.- C6HI005. 

Dextrose  or  grape  sugar C6H  I206,H20. 

{{C   H  VH     "v 
VU3M5J  ) 

(C,8H350)  >  03. 
H          ) 

Elayl  or  olefiant  gas C2H4. 

Epsom  salts MgS04,7H20. 

Green  vitriol FeS04. 

Fire  damp  or  light  carburetted  )  ^H 

hydrogen ' . .    3 

Fruit  sugar  or  Isevulose C6H ,  206. 

Fusel  oil  or  amylic  alcohol C5H ,  20. 

Glycerin C3H803. 

Glauber  salts Na2S04,10H20. 


580  THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 

Grape  sugar  dextrose C6H  I206,H20. 

Gun-cotton  or  pyroxylin C,8H2I,9N02,0|5  (Hadow). 

Hsematein C16HI206. 

Javelle  water,  or  bleaching  powder. CaCl2  +  CaCl202. 

Kreasote I*?'2""0*- 

(  (Gorup-Besanez). 

Lactose,  or  sugar  of  milk C ,  2H240 , 2. 

Lsevulose,  or  fruit-sugar C6H ,  206. 

Leucine C6HI3N02. 

Malt  sugar C6H , 206. 

Marsh  gas CH4. 

Meerschaum 2MgO,3Si02.4H20. 

Morphia CI7HI9N03. 

Naphthalin C  ,0H8. 

Narcotin C22H23N07. 

JSTitroglycerin C3H5(N02)303. 

Nitre KN03. 

!N"ux  vomica,  or  strychnia C2,  H22N202. 

Olefiant  gas C2H4. 

Palmatin C5 , H9806  (Berthelot). 

Paraffin a?(CH2). 

Pearlash  (crude  potassic  carbonate) .  K2C03. 

(  Fe7Cylfi,18H20= 

Prussian  blue ]      7  Jn 

Fe4Fcy3,18H20. 

fre7Cy,8,Fe203,a;K20  = 

Fe4Fcy3,Fe203,a?H20. 
Turnbull's  blue,  or  ferrous  |  Fe5Cy,2,ccH20  = 

ferricyanide \  Fe3Fdcy2,xH20- 

Williamson's  blue,  or  ferro- )  Fe2KCy6,a?H20= 

potassic  ferricyanide f  FeK,Fdcy,ccH20. 

«         .  j  Sn"Au2Sn2064H20. 

Purple  of  cassms \ 

(      (Figuier.) 

Pyroxylin,  or  gun-cotton CI8H21 ,9N02,0 , 5  (Hadow). 

Quick-lime CaO. 

Quinia C20H24N202,3H20. 

Eochelle  salts KNaC4H406,4H20. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  581 

Rosaniline .'C20HI9N3,H20. 

Salalembroth. 6H4NCl,HgCl2.H20. 

Salammoniac H4NC1. 

Salenixum,  or  bisulphate  of  potash.  KHS04. 

Salgem,  or  rock  salt NaCl. 

Salprunella,  or  fused  nitre KN03. 

Salt  cake Na2S04. 

Salt  of  sorrel H2C204,2H20. 

Saltpetre KN03. 

Scheele's  green CuHAs03. 

Schweinfurt  green 3CuAs04,Cu2C2H302. 

Spelter,  or  zinc Zn. 

Soapstone,  or  French  chalk MgO,Si02.2MgO,3Si02. 

Steatite,  or  soapstone MgO,Si02.2MgO,3Si02. 

Stearin C57HM006  (Berthelot). 

Strychnia C2IH22N202. 

Sucrose,  or  cane-sugar C ,  2H220 , , . 

Tartar  emetic 2[C4H4K(SbO)06].H20. 

Toluol C7H8. 

Triolein C57H I0406. 

Tripalmatin C5 ,  H  9806. 

Tristearin C57H,  I006. 

Zylol C8HI0. 

FORMULA 
OF  THE  FREQUENTLY  OCCURRING  ACIDS. 

Acid  Acetic HC2H302. 

"  Acrylic HC3H302. 

"  Antimonic H5Sb05. 

u  Antimonous HSb02. 

"  Apocrenic H2C24H , 20 , 3  ?  (Mulder). 

"  Arsenic H3As04. 

"  Arsenous H3As03. 

"  Aspartic HC4H6N04. 

"  Basic  (stearic) HC,8H350P. 


1 
> 
) 


582  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Acid  Benzole  ..................  HC7H502. 

"  Bismuthic  .................  HBi03. 

"  Boric  .....................  H3B03. 

"  Bromic  ...................  HBr03. 

"  Butic  .....................  C20H4002  (Heintz). 

"  Butyric  ...................  HC4H702. 

"  Camphoric  ................  H2CIOHI404. 

"  Capric  (rutic)  ..............  HCIOH  ,  902. 

"  Caproic  ...................  HC6H,,02. 

"  Caprylic  ...................  HC8H  ,  502. 

"  Carbolic  (pkenic)  ...........  HC6H50. 

61  Carbazotic     (picric-trinitro- 

,       .  N 
phenic) 

"  Carbonic  ..................  H2C03. 

"  Carminic  ..................  C  ,  4H  ,  4.08. 

"  Citric  .....................  H3C6H507,H20  (Liebig). 

"  Chloric  ....................  C102(OH). 

u  Chlorous  .................  .CIO(OH). 

"  Chromic  ..................  H2Cr04. 

"  Diphosphoric  ..............  H4P207. 

"  Gallic  ....................  H3C7H305,H20. 

"  Gljcolic  ..................  HC2H303. 

"  Hippuric  ..................  HC9H8N03. 

"  Hydrobromic  ..............  H  Br. 

"  Hydrochloric  ......  ..........  HC1. 

"  Hydrocobalticyanic  .........  H3CoCy6 

"  Hydroferricyanic  ...........  H3FeCy6. 

"  Hydroferrocyanic  ...........  H4FeCy6. 

"  Hydrofluoric  ..............  HF. 

"  Hydriodic  .................  HI. 

"  Hydrosulphocyanic  .........  HCyS. 

"  Hydrosulphuric  ............  H2S. 

"  Hypobromous  .............  H  BrO. 

"  Hypochlorous  ..............  Cl(OH). 

"  Hypoiodous  ................  H  10. 

"  Hyposulphurous  .....  .......  H2S02. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  583 

Acid  lodic H I03. 

"  Kresylic HC7H70. 

"  Lactic HC3H503. 

"  Malic H2C4H405. 

"  Meta-gallic C6H402. 

"  Meta-phosphoric H  P03. 

"  Meta-stannic H2Sn03. 

"  Meta-silicic H2Si03. 

"  Meta-tartaric H2C4H406. 

"  Myristic  . .    HC,4H2702. 

"  Nitric HN03. 

"  Nitrous HN02. 

«  Oleic HC,8H3302. 

"  Palmitic HCI6H3I02. 

"  Pentathionic H2S506, 

"  Perchloric C103(OH). 

"  Perchromic H2O208. 

"  Periodic HI04. 

"  Permanganic H2Mn208. 

"  Phenic  (carbolic) HC6H50. 

"  Phosphoric H3P04. 

"  Picric  (carbazotic) H,C6H2(N02)30. 

"  Pyrocitric H2C5H404. 

«  Pyrogallic C6H603. 

"  Pyroligneous HC2H302. 

"  Pyrotartaric H2C4H406,H20. 

"  Eacemic H2C4H406,H20. 

"  Saccharic H2C6H808. 

"  Silicic  (ortho) H4Si04. 

"  Stannic  (ortho) H4Sn04. 

"  Stearic ..HCI8H3502. 

'"  Succinic H2C4H404. 

"  Sulphantimonic H3SbS4. 

"  Sulphocarbonic H2CS3. 

"  Sulphosulphuric H2S203. 

"  Sulphuric H2S04. 


584  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Acid  Sulphurous H2S03,  14  aq. 

"  Tetrathionic H2S406. 

"  Trithionic H2S306. 

"  Tannic C27H220 , 7  (Strecker). 

"  Tartaric H2C4H406. 

"  Uric  or  lithic H2C5H2N403. 

"  Valeric  or  valerianic HC5H902. 

ARTIFICIAL   FORMATION   OF  ORGANIC   BODIES. 

1828.  Urea.     (Wohler.) 

1831.  Formic  acid.     (Pelouze.) 

1846.  Marsh  gas.     (Melsens.) 

1847.  Acetic  acid.     (Dumas,  Malaguti,  and  Le  Blanc.) 
185T.  Cinnamic  acid.     (Bertagnini.) 

1857.  "  "         (Harnitz  Harnitzky.) 

1858.  Formic  acid,  ethylene,  marsh   gas,  and   acetylene. 

(Berthelot.) 

1858.  Acetic  and  propionic  acids.     (Wanklyn.) 

1859.  Glycols.     (Wurtz.) 

1860.  Malic  and  tartaric  acid.  (Kekule,  Perkin  and  Duppa.) 

1861.  Gallic  acid.     (Lauteman.) 

1861.  Sugar  and  formic  acid.     (Boutherow.) 

1861.  Formic  acid.     (Kolbe.) 

1862.  Alcohol.     (Wurtz.) 
1862.  Amylene.     (Wurtz.) 

1862.  Amine  from  lower  cyanides.     (Mendms.) 

1863.  Lactic  acid.     (Wislecenius.) 
1863.  Diatomic  acids.     (Lippeman.) 
1863.  Leucic          "        (Frankland.) 

1863.  MaJonic       «        (Kolbe  and  Muhler.) 

1863.  Carballylic  «         (Maxwell  Simpson.) 

1863.  Isomer  of  Rutylic  alcohol.     (Boutherow.) 

1864.  Secondary  butylic  alcohol.     (Lieben.) 

1864  and  1865.     Fatty  and  aromatic  series  of  acids.     (H. 
Hainitzky.) 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  585 

1864  and  1S65.    Toluene  and  Xylene.  '  (Fittig  and  Tollens.) 

1865.  Aceconitic  acid.     (Bseyer.) 

1865.  Butyric  and  Caproic  acid.     (Franldand.) 

1865.  Isomer  of  tartaric  acid.     (Schogen.) 

1866.  Toluic  acid.     (Kekule.) 

1867.  Oxalic  and  malonic  acids.     (Berthelot.) 

1868.  Neurine.     (Wurtz.) 

1869.  Picolin.     (Schiff.) 

1870.  Oil  of  Eue.     (Gorup-Besanez.) 
1870.  Alizarine.     (Graebe,  Linderman,  etc.) 


ALCOHOLS. 

MONATOMIC    ALCOHOLS. 
First  series,  C2nH2n+2  +  2O2  (fatty  group). 
Methyli  c  alcohol,  or  wood  spirit,  hydrate  of  methyl  (Taylor, 

1812  ;  Dumas  and  Peligot,  1835)  ............  v  ..........  C2  H4  O2 

Vinous  alcohol,  or  ordinary  alcohol,  hydrate  of  ethyl.  .  ........  C4  H6  O2 

Propylic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  trityle  (Chancel,  1853)  ........  C6  H8  O2 

Butylic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  tetryle  (Wurtz,  1852)  ...........  C8  H1002 

Amylic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  pentyle  (Scheele,  1785  ;  Cahours 

and  Balard,  1830)  .  ........................  .  ...........  Cj  0H  1  2O2 

Caproic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  hexyle  (Faget,  1852)  ...........  C  ,  2H  ,  4O2 

GEnanthylic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  heptyle  (Faget,  1862)  ......  C,  4H  1  6O2 

Caprylic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  octyle  (Bouis,  1851)  ...........  C,  gHj  8O2 

Rutic  or  capric  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  decyle  .................  C20H22O2 

Cetylic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  cetyl   (Chevreul,  1823  ;  Dumas 

and  Peligot,  1836)  ...................................  C:J2H34O2 

Cerofcic  alcohol,  or  eerie,  or  hydrate  of  ceryle  (Brodie,  1848).  .  .  C54HS6O2 
Melissic,  or  inyricic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  myricile   (Brodie, 

1848)  ................................................  C60H6202 


Second  series, 
Acetylenic,  or  vinylic  alcohol  (Berthelot,  1860)  ...............     C4  H4  O2 

Allylic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  allyle  (Cahours  and  Hoffmann, 

1856)  ................................................     C6  H6  O2 

Menthic  alcohol  ...........................................     C20H2QO2 

Third  series,  CsnHsn-aOs. 
Campholic  alcohol,  or  Borneo  camphor  (Pelouze,  1840)  ........     C20Hj  8O2 


586  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

Fourth  series,  CsJEEgn-eOa  (aromatic  series). 

Benzyl  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  benzyl  (Cannizaro,  1853) Ci  4H8  O2 

Toluic,  or  tollylic  alcohol  (Cannizaro,  1853) Cx  6Hi  0O2 

Cumylic  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  cumyl  (Kraut,  1854) G20^-i  403 

Syroceric  alcohol,  or  hydrate  of  syroceryle  (Warren  de  la  Rue, 

Muller,  1859) C36H30O2 

Fifth  series,  C2nH2n-&0.2. 

Cinnamic  alcohol,  or  styrone,  hydrate  of  cinnamyle  (Simon, 

1839) C18H1002 

Cholesteric  alcohol,  or  cholchesterine  (Conradi,  1775) C32H24O2 

DIATOMIC    ALCOHOLS,    OR    GLYCOLS. 

Ethylic  glycol,  or  hydrate  of  the  oxide  of  ethylene  (Wurtz, 

1856) C4  H6  04 

Propylic  glycol,  or  hydrate  of  the  oxide  of  propylene  (Wurtz, 

1856) C6  H8  04 

Butyl  glycol,  or  hydrate  of  the  oxide  of  butylene  (Wurtz, 

1856) Cs  H1004 

Amyl  glycol,  or  hydrate  of  the  oxide  of  amylene  (Wurtz, 

1856) CJOH1204 

Hexylglycol,  or  hydrate  of  oxide  of  hexylene  (Wurtz,  1854).. .  C,  2H!  404 
Capryl  glycol,  or  hydrate  of  the  oxide  of  octylene  (De  Cler- 

mont,  1865) C16H18O4 

Saligenine  (Piria,  1845) , C, 4H8  O4 

Anise  alcohol  (Cannizaro  and  Bertagnini) Cj  6H  j  0O4 

TRIATOMIC    ALCOHOLS. 

Glycerin  (Scheele,  1779  ;  Berthelot,  1860) C6  H8  O6 

Amylglycerin  (Bauer,  1863) d  0H,  0O6 

TETRATOMIC    ALCOHOLS. 

Propylphycite  (Carius,  1866) C6  H8  O8 

Erythrite  (De  Luynes,  1862) , C8  H,  0O8 

HEXATOMIC    ALCOHOLS. 

Mannite  (Proust,  1806) C, 2H, 40, 2 

Glucose  (Lowitz,  1790  ;  Proust,  1802) , CI2H,  20, 2 

Inosite  (Scheerer,  1850) C12H12O12 

Finite  (Berthelot,  1853) C,  2^ 40, 2 

Quercite  (Braconnot,  1849) Cj 2H,  40, 2 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


587 


ALLOYS    AND    COMPOSITIONS. 
(BY  HASWELL.) 


SUBSTANCE. 

6 

55 
50 
3.7 
84.3 
75 
79.3 
92.2 
80 
88.8 
74.3 
50 
88.9 
90 
10 
67 
66 

87 
86 
67.2 
80 
90 
93 
93 
91.4 
65.1 
40  4 
80 
69 
72 
87.5 
33.3 
40.4 
49.5 
81.6 
77 
80 
87.5 
77.4 

60 

56 
66 
50 
66.6 
33.4 

7^4  • 
69.8 

73 

1 

N 

24 
2.5 

572 
25 
6.4 

20 
11.2 
22.3 
31 
2.8 

80~ 
33 
34 

13 
11.1 
31.2 

5.5 
19  3 
25.4 
5.6 

S3~4 
25.4 
24 

7 
40~ 

45 
21 

7.4 
25.8 

12.3-j 

t 

g 

B 

21 
40 

19 

13 
31.6 

q 
3 

ANTIMONY. 

BISMUTH. 

SILVER. 

li 

!" 

1 

1  ARSENIC. 

275 
89 
10.5 

14.3 

7.8 

3.4 

8.3 
10 
10 

25 

2.9 
1.6 
20 
10 

7 
7 
1.4 

2.6 
10.1 
31 
26.5 
12.5 

1874 
23 
20 
12.5 
15.6 

86 
80 

22 

29 
33.4 
66.6 

28T4 
4.4 

Magne 
Sal-am 

Argentiferous  

2.5 

1.7 
4.3 

75 

7.3 

25 
25 

leT? 

14 
20 

15.5 

56.8 



Cre« 
Qui 

25 

2.48 

ftart 
le   . 

12 

2.5 

- 

Baubitt's  metal          ...         .... 

"             "       hard 

"    mathematical  instruments 
kt    pinchbeck    .... 

u    red  tombac  
u    rolled         

"    tutenao-                    .     . 

"    very  tenacious  
"    wheels,  valves  —  

u    wire.           

u    yellow  fine         .  .. 

Britaiiuia  metal  

"    when  fused,  add 

'  '         red                          .... 

"         yellow 

u         cymbals  

1.5 

2.6 
2.5 

if- 

"         gun  metal,  large  
'k                            small  

"        medals        .... 

"         statuary 

Chinese  silver    

Chinese  white  copper  
Church  bells  

u           u 

Clock  bells 

33.3 
31.6 
24 

sia  .  .  . 
monia 

8.3 

isTs 

imo 
cklic 

ir6., 
.  l.J 

Clock?,  musical  bells  

German  silver 

u            u    fine  .... 

Gon^s 

House  bells    

Lathe  bushes        .... 

Machinery  bearings 

"       hard 

Metal  that  expands  in  cooling.  . 

Pewter,  best           ...        

20 
80 

69 

.4.4 
C2.5 

12 

ixes. 

Printin**  characters     

Sheathin01  metal  .  .  . 

Speculum      "     

Telescopic  mirrors  

Temper  

Type  and  stereotype  plates  
White  metal 

"    hard    

Oroide 

588  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

ALLOYS    FOR    SOLDERS. 

Melts— F. 

Newton's  fusible 8Bi  +  5Pb  +  3Sn 212°. 

Rose's  "       2Bi  +  lPb+lSn 201°. 

A  more          "       5Bi  +  3Pb  +  2Sn 199°. 

Stillmore      "       12Sn  +  25Pb  +  50Bi  +  13Cd. . .    155°. 

For  tin  solder,  coarse ISn  +  3Pb 500°. 

"        ordinary 2Sn  +  lPb 360°. 

For  brass,  soft  spelter ICu  +  IZn 550°. 

Hard,  for  iron 2Cu  +  IZn 700°. 

For  steel 19Sn  +  3Cu  +  lZn — 

For  fine  brass  work ISn  +  8Cu  +  8Zn. 

Pewter  soft  solder IBi  +  IPb  +  2Sn. 

Gold  solder 24Au  +  2Sn  +  lCu. 

Silver  solder,  hard 4Sn  +  ICu. 

"         "        soft 2Sn  + 1  brass  (wire). 

For  lead 16Sn  +  33Pb. 

FLUXES    FOR    SOLDERING    OR    WELDING. 

Iron Borax. 

Tinned  iron Resin. 

Copper  and  brass Sal-ammoniac. 

Zinc Chloride  of  zinc. 

Lead Tallow  or  resin. 

Lead  and  tin  pipes Resin  and  sweet  oil. 

AMALGAMS. 

GOLD. — One  weight  of  mercury  amalgamates  with  two  weights  of  gold. 
SILVER. — 10  silver  to  19  mercury. 

7     "      "  20 
TIN. — 1  tin  to  3  mercury,  for  looking-glasses. 

1  tin,  1  lead,  2  bismuth,  10  mercury,  for  glass-globes. 

1  tin,  1  zinc,  3  mercury,  for  rubbers  in  electric  machines. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


589 


TABLE. 
(BY  H.  SPBENGEL,  PH.D.) 

Showing  the  total  amount  of  oxygen,  and  the  oxygen  available  for  com- 
bustion, in  a  few  oxygen  compounds. 


NAME. 

FORMULA. 

TOTAL  O 

IN  100. 

AVAIL- 
ABLE O  IN 
100. 

H302 
H30 
HNOa 
N205 
C02 
Li203 

Hl&.0< 

safe 

HC1O4 
C3H5(N02)303 
NH4N08 
C6H7(N02)305 
NaNO3 
C8(N02)3N 
C4H604 
C2H408 
C3H803 
SiO, 
H4N0CO,HN03 
C6~H1005 
CCH3(N02)30 
KaN03 
KaC103 
CNHO          I 
C3N3H303    1 

CnNnHnOn        f 

C3H3N  03   J 
MnO3 
C6H4N2,HNO3 
C6H5(N02) 
Ia05 
C6H6O 
C2Hg(N08)N 
CmHuOp 

94.1 

88.8 
76.2 
74.0 
72.7 
71.1 
71.1 
69.5 
65.3 
65.3 
63.6 
63.4 
60.0 
59.3 
56.4 
54.5 
54.2 
53.3 
52.2 
51.9 
51.4 
49.4 
48.9 
47.5 
39.2 

37.2 

36.7 
28.7 
26.2 
23.9 
17.1 
11.2 
10.0 

47.0 

63.5 
74.0 

85.5 

69.5 
65.3 
? 
55.7 
42.3? 
50.0? 
32.3? 
47.0 
54.5 
13.5? 
? 
? 

32.5 
? 
41.9 
39.6 
39.2 

? 

18.3 
23.9 
26.2 
23.9 
? 
11.2 
? 

Water        

Nitric  anhydride 

Carbonic  acid  ...       .    .     . 

Peroxide  of  lithium  ?  

Oxalic  acid               .  ' 

Nitric  peroxide         . 

Tetranitromethane  

Sulphuric  acid  

Perchloric  acid  

Trinitroglycerin 

Nitrate  of  ammonia  

Nitrate  of  sodium  

TrinitroacetouitriJ 

Peroxide  of  acetyl 

Glycerin  . 

Silica  

Nitrate  of  urea  

Cellulose  

Picric  acid  

Nitrate  of  potassium 

Chlorate  of  potassium  

Cyanic  acid  

Cyanuric  acid  ...       

Cyamelide  

Fulminuric  acid  . 

Peroxide  of  manganese.    .  .  . 

Nitrate  of  diazobenzine  
Nitrobenzine  ....... 

Phenol  

Fulminating  mercury  

Charcoal        .   .  . 

590  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


THE    OLD    NAMES    FOR    A    FEW    SALTS. 

SALT  (AMMONIACAL,  FIXED).    Calcic  chloride. 

"  (AMMONIACAL,  SECRET)  of  Glauber.    Ammonic  sulphate. 

"  (ARSENICAL,  NEUTRAL)  of  Macquer.    Potassic  hydric  arseuate. 

"  (BITTER  CATHARTIC).    Magnesium  sulphate. 

"  (COMMON).     Sodic  chloride. 

"  (DIGESTIVE)  of  Sylvius.    Potassic  acetate. 

"  (EPSOM).    Magnesic  sulphate. 

"  (FEBRIFUGE)  of  Sylvius.    Potassic  chloride. 

"  (FUSIBLE).     Aminonic  phosphate. 

"  (FUSIBLE)  of  Urine.     Ammonio-sodic  phosphate. 

"  (GREEN).     In  the  mines  of  Wieliczka  the  workmen  give  this  name 

to  the  upper  stratum  of  native  salt,  which  is  rendered  impure  by 

a  mixture  of  clay. 

"  (MARINE).     Sodic  chloride. 

"  (MARINE,  ARGILLACEOUS).    Aluminic  chloride. 

"  (MICROCOSMIC).     Ammonio-sodic  phosphate. 
(NITROUS  AMMONICAL).    Ammonic  nitrate. 

"  OF  AMBER.     Succinic  acid. 

"  OF  BENZOIN.     Benzoic  acid. 

"  OF  CANAL.    Magnesic  sulphate. 

"  OF  COLCOTHAR.     Ferrous  sulphate. 

"  OF  EGRA.    Magnesic  sulphate. 

"  OF  LEMONS  (essential).    Potassic  hydric  oxalate. 

"  OF  SATURN.    Plumbic  acetate. 

"  OF  SEDLITZ.     Magnesic  sulphate. 

"  OF  SEIGNETTE.    Potassio-sodic  tartrate. 

"  OF  SODA.     Sodic  carbonate. 

"  OF  SORREL.    Potassic  hydric  oxalate. 

"  OF  TARTAR.    Potassic  carbonate. 

"  OF  VITRIOL.    Purified  zinc  sulphate. 

"  OF  WISDOM.     Ammonio-mercuric  chloride. 

"  (PERLATE).     Disodic  orthophosphate. 

"  (POLYCHREST)  of  Glaser.    Potassic  sulphate. 

"  (SEDATIVE).     Boracic  acid. 

"  (SPIRIT  OF).     Hydrochloric  acid  was  formerly  called  by  this  name, 

which  it  still  retains  in  commerce. 
(SULPHUREOUS)  of  Stahl.     Potassic  sulphite. 

0  (WONDERFUL).    Sodic  sulphate. 

"  (WONDERFUL,  PERLATE).    Disodic  orthophosphate. 


THE   CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


591 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  INDEX  OF  REFRACTION  OF  A  FEW  SUBSTANCES. 


INDEX  or 
REFRACTION. 


(FOWNES.) 
SUBSTANCE. 

Tabasheer* 1.10 

Ice 1 .30 

Water 1  34. 

Fluor-spar 1  40 

Plate  glass 1  50 

Rock  crystal , .  1.60 

Chrysolite 1  59 

Carbon  disulpliide 1.70 

Garnet 180 

Glass  (with  much  plumbic  oxide) 1  90 

Phosphorus 2  20 

Diamond 3  50 

Plumbic  chromate 3.00 

Cinnabar 3  20 

ELECTRICITY. 

(NYSTROM.) 
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL  ORDER  OF  SIMPLE  SUBSTANCES. 


ELEC  TEO-PO  SITIVE  . 

Potassium. 

Sodium. 

Lithium. 

Barium. 

Strontium. 

Calcium. 

Magnesium. 

Aluminium. 

Uranium. 

Manganese. 

Zinc. 

Iron. 

Nickel. 

Cobalt. 


Cadmium. 

Lead. 

Tin. 

Bismuth. 

Copper. 

Silver. 

Mercury. 

Palladium. 

Platinum. 

Gold. 

Hydrogen. 

Silicon. 

Titanium. 

Tellurium. 

Antimony. 

Carbon. 


Boron. 
Tungsten. 
Molybdenum. 
Vanadium. 

ORDER   OF   COM- 
POUNDS. 
ELECTRO-POSITIVE. 

Chromium. 

Fur. 

Arsenicum. 
Phosphorus. 
Iodine. 

Smooth  glass. 
Woolen  cloth. 
Feathers. 

Bromine. 

Wood. 

Chlorine. 
Fluorine. 

Paper. 
Silk. 

Nitrogen. 
Selenium. 
Sulphur. 
Oxygen. 
ELECTRO-NEGATIVE. 

Lac. 
Rough  glass. 
Sulphur. 
Cotton. 
ELECTRO-NEGATIVE. 

In  chemical  formulas  the  electro-positive  substance  is  placed  first,  and  the  negative  last. 

Oxygen,  being  the  substance  most  electro-negative,  combines  with  the  most  electro- 
positive substance  in  the  couple,  and  the  force  liberated  by  the  oxidation,  or  that  which 
kept  the  oxidated  substance  solid,  forms  the  electricity.  No  electricity  can  be  formed 
without  the  consumption  of  some  force  or  substance. 

The  substances  are  arranged  in  their  order  of  positive  and  negative  electricity.  The 
substance  is  positive  to  either  one  below  it,  and  negative  to  any  one  above.  The  exciting 
fluid  to  be  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  Other  fluids  cause  some  difference  in  the  order,  depend- 
ing upon  the  different  chemical  affinity  between  the  fluid  and  the  substances  in  the  gal- 
vanic couple. 


*  A  silicious  deposit  in  the  joints  of  the  bamboo. 


592 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


ORDER  OF  CONDUCTING  POWER  FOR  ELECTRICITY. 


Metals,  best  conduc- 

Living animals. 

Phosphorus. 

Dyed  silk. 

tors. 

Steam. 

Lime. 

Bleached  silk. 

Well-burnt  charcoal. 

Salts  soluble  in  wa- 

Dry chalk. 

Raw  silk. 

Plumbago. 

ter. 

Caoutchouc. 

Diamond. 

Concentrated  acids. 

Rarefied  air. 

Camphor. 

Mica. 

Powdered  charcoal. 

Vapor  of  alcohol. 

Silicions  stones. 

All  vitrifications. 

Diluted  acids. 

Moist     earth     and 

Dry  marble. 

Glass. 

Saline  solutions. 

stones. 

Porcelain. 

Jet. 

Metallic  ores. 

Powdered  glass. 

Baked  wood. 

Wax. 

Animal  fluids. 

Flower  of  sulphur. 

Dry  gases  and  air. 

Sulphur. 

Sea  water. 

Dry  metallic  oxides. 

Leather. 

Resins. 

Spring  water. 

Oils,    the    heaviest 

Parchment. 

Amber. 

Rain  water. 

the  best. 

Dry  paper. 

Shellac. 

Ice  above  13°  Fahr. 

Ashes. 

Feathers. 

Gutta-percha,      the 

Snow. 

Transparent  crystals. 

Hair. 

worst     conductor 

Living  vegetables. 

Ice  below  13°  Fahr. 

Wool. 

of  all. 

Velocity  of  electricity  through  the  best  conductors  is  equal  to  that  of  light  through  plane- 
tary space— about  200,000  miles  per  second.  When  the  conductor  is  insulated  with  a  solid 
non-conducting  substance,  like  gutta-percha,  and  immersed  in  water  as  a  submarine  cable, 
the  velocity  may  be  reduced  to  only  20,000  miles  per  second,  or  less. 

The  substances  are  set  up  in  their  order  of  conducting  power  for  electricity.  The  con- 
ducting power  of  substances  for  heat  appears  to  be  in  the  same  proportion  as  that  lor  elec- 
tricity. The  poor  conductors  for  electricity  are  called  insulators,  and  employed  between 
good  conductors  to  stop  the  flow  or  passage  of  the  electric  fluid. 


POISONS  AND   THEIR   ANTIDOTES.* 

As  poisoning  may  and  does  often  occur  from  accident  or 
design,  it  is  well  for  every  person  to  make  himself  familiar,  if 
not  with  the  proper  antidote  (for  every  poison  has  its  antidote), 
with  some  necessary  preliminary  treatment  before  the  doctor 
arrives.  Much  suffering  and  even  death  may  then,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  be  prevented. 

"  When  known  that  poison  has  been  taken  into  the  stomach, 
the  first  thing  is  to  evacuate  it  by  means  of  the  stomach-pump 
or  an  emetic,  unless  vomiting  takes  place  spontaneously. 

"  As  an  emetic,  ground  mustard  mixed  in  warm  water  is 
always  safe.  Take  one  tablespoonful  to  one  pint  of  warm 
water.  Give  the  patient  one-half  in  the  first  instance,  and  the 
remainder  in  fifteen  minutes,  if  vomiting  has  not  commenced. 
In  the  interval  drink  copious  draughts  of  warm  water.  Irri- 
tate the  throat  with  a  feather  or  finger,  to  induce  vomiting. 

*  The  following  table  has  been  carefully  compiled  from  Wood's  Lexicon, 
Cutter's  Anatomy,  and  Jahr's  (Hull)  Symptoms. 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


593 


After  vomiting  lias  begun  give  mucilaginous  drinks,  such  as 
flax-seed  tea,  gum-arabic  water,  or  slippery  elm. 

"  If  the  patient  is  drowsy,  give  a  strong  infusion  of  cold 
coffee,  keep  him  walking,  slap  smartly  on  the  back ;  use  elec- 
tricity ;  it  may  be  well  to  dash  cold  water  on  the  head,  to 
keep  the  patient  awake. 

"  After  the  poison  is  evacuated  from  the  stomach  to  sustain 
vital  action,  give  warm  water  and  wine  or  brandy.  If  the 
limbs  are  cold,  apply  warmth  and  friction. 

"  In  all  cases  of  poisoning,  call  immediately  a  physician,  as 
the  after  treatment  is  of  great  importance." 


POISON. 


ANTIDOTE  AND  REMEDIES. 
(Large  doses.) 


ANTIDOTE. 

(Homwopathicatty— small 
doses.) 


ACID  ACETIC. 


Chalk,  wliiting,  magnesia,  soap 
or  oil.  Alkaline  bi carbonates,  milk, 
white  of  egg,  or  almost  any  demul- 
cent. 


China,  nux  vomi- 
ca,  coffea,  arsenicum, 
belladona. 


ACID 
HYDROCYANIC, 

or 

PKUSSIC  ACID  ; 

BITTER 

ALMONDS 

(oil  of) ; 

LAUREL  WATER. 


Drink  at  once  one  teaspoonf  ill  of 
ammonic  hydrate  (spirits  of  harts- 
horn) in  one  pint  of  water.  Inhale 
odor  of  ammonia.  Chlorine,  either 
in  vapor,  or  taken  internally.  Cold 
infusions,  artificial  respiration, 
stimulating  injections.  Sulphate 
of  iron. 


Same. 


ACID 

HYDROCHLORIC, 
MURIATIC,  or 
MARINE  ACID. 


Neutralize  the  acid  by  chalk  or 
calcined  magnesia,  or  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  an  alkaline  carbonate,  milk, 
white  of  egg,  strong  soapsuds  and 
lime.  Large  draughts  of  tepid 
water  or  mucilage  should  follow 
the  antidote. 


Large  doses  :  mag- 
nesia calcinata,  sapo, 
medicus.  Of  small 
doses :  bryonia  (?), 
camphor. 


ACID  SULPHURIC 

or 
OIL  OF  VITRIOL. 


Same  as  hydrochloric  acid — mu- 
riatic acid. 


Pulsatilla. 


ACID  OXALIC. 


Powdered  chalk ;  magnesia,  or 
its  carbonate,  suspended  in  water 
or  milk.  An  emetic,  if  free  vomit- 
ing is  not  induced  by  the  above 
means. 


Same. 


594  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

POISONS  AND  THEIK  ANTIDOTES — (Continued). 


POISON. 

ANTIDOTE  AND  REMEDIES. 
(Large  doses.) 

ANTIDOTE. 
(HornMopathically  —  small 
doses.) 

ACID 
PHOSPHORIC. 

Magnesia,  emetics,  and  emollient 
drinks. 

Camphor  and  cof- 
fea. 

ACID  NITRIC 
or 
AQUAFORTIS. 

Same  as  hydrochloric  acid. 

Calcarea  carbonate. 
Camphor.  Conium 
maculatum.  Hepar- 
sulphuris-calcareum. 
Mercurius.  Petro- 
leum. Phosphorus. 
Phosphorus  acid. 
Sulphur. 

ALCOHOL. 

The  stomach-pump.  Cold  affu- 
sions. Ammonic  hydrate  (spirits 
of  hartshorn). 

Same. 

CHLOROFORM 
and 
ETHER. 

Cold  affusions  on  the  head  and 
neck,  ammonia  to  the  nostrils,  arti- 
ficial respiration,  electricity,  open- 
ing the  trachea. 

Same. 

AMMONIC 
HYDRATE 
(Ammonia,  or 
Spirits  of  Harts- 
liorn), 
POTASH  or  SODA. 

Weak  acids,  as  vinegar  and  water, 
followed  by  acidulated  demulcent 
drinks.     Lemon  juice,  olive  oil  in 
large  quantities,  large  draughts  of 
cream  or  milk.     Use  no  emetic. 
In  poisoning    by  the   vapor    of 
ammonia,  the  inhalation  of  the  va- 
por of  acetic  acid  or  of  dilute  hy- 
drochloric acid. 

Same. 

IODINE 
and  IODIDE  OF 
POTASSIUM 
(Potassic  Iodide). 

Take  a  mustard  emetic.  Drink 
a  mixture  of  starch,  gruel,  or  arrow- 
root beat  in  water. 

Same. 

MAD  DOG  BITE, 
or 
HYDROPHOBIA. 

Cauterization  of  the  wound  with 
argentic  nitrate  (nitrate  of  silver, 
lunar  caustic). 
The  following  is  said  to  be  suc- 
cessful : 
Slice  or  bruise  the  green  or  dry 
root  of  elecampane,  put  into  a  pint 
of  fresh  milk,  and  boil  down  to  half 
a  pint,   strain  when  cold  ;    drink, 
fasting,  at  least  six  hours  afterward. 
The  next  morning,  fasting,  repeat 

Same. 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL.  595 

POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES — (Continued). 


POISON. 

ANTIDOTE  AND  KEMEDIES. 
(Large  doses.) 

ANTIDOTE. 
(Homceopatfiically—  small 
doses. 

HYDROPHOBIA. 
(Continued.) 

the  dose,  using  two  ounces  of  the 
root.     Repeat  this  the  third  morn- 
ing1, and  it  will  be  sufficient. 
According    to    Dr.   Grzyvala,   of 
England,  and  Prof.  Guber,  of  Paris, 
zanthium  spi/iosum  possesses  anti- 
rabic    properties.      Of     the    dried 
leaves,  powdered,  the  dose  for  an 
adult  is   nine   grains,  thrice  daily 
For  children  under  that  age,  half 
that  dose.     Sure  cure  for  hydropho- 
bia, both  in  man  and  animals. 
"  Cases  treated  with  the  actual 
cautery  and  the  daily  use  of  genista 
tinctoria,  died  with  hydrophobia, 
when  with  the  above  plant  (zan- 
thium spinosum),  similar  cases  were 
all  mastered."     (British  Med.  Jour.) 

TOADSTOOLS 
(non-edible 
mushrooms). 

Prof.  Maurice  Schiff,  of  Florence, 
has  demonstrated  that  the  non- 
edible  mushrooms  contain  a  common 
poison,  muscarin,  and  that  its  ef- 
fects are  counteracted  by  atropin  or 
dantrin. 

Same. 

ARSENIC  ; 
COBALT 
(fly  powder)  ; 
KING'S  YELLOW; 
RATSBANE  ; 
SCHEELE'S 
GREEN. 

An  emetic,  stomach-pump,  zincic 
sulphate,  cupric  sulphate  ;  or  mus- 
tard may  be  used  as  an  emetic,  or 
salt  and  water  ;  or  vomiting  may 
be  prod  uced  by  tickling  the  throat 
with    a     feather.     The    vomiting 
should  be   assisted   by  demulcent 
drinks.     After  free  vomiting,  give 
large  quantities  of  calcined  magne- 
sia.    The  antidote  for  arsenic    is 
hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron,  fresh- 
ly precipitated. 
If  the  poison  has  passed  into  the 
bowels,  castor-oil. 

Camphor,  china, 
chin-sulph.,  ferrum, 
hep.  iod.,  ipec.,  nux.  v., 
samb.,  tabac,  verat. 

ANTIMONY 
(Wine  of)  ; 
TARTAR  EMETIC. 

Vomiting    should    be    produced 
by  tepid  water  ;  any  astringent  in- 
fusion,  such    as    tea,    oak,    bark, 
tannin  (ground  nutgall)  ;  afterward 
opiates  (paregoric),  warm  bath,  and 
mustard  poultices. 

Hepar  -  sulphuris- 
calcareum.  Mercu- 
rius.  Pulsatilla  (?). 

BARYTA  SALTS. 

Stomach-pump  or  emetics  ;  mag- 
nesic  sulphate  or  soda. 

Same. 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 
POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES — (Continued}. 


POISON. 

ANTIDOTE  AND  REMEDIES. 
(Large  doses.) 

ANTIDOTE. 

(Homceopathically—  small 
doses. 

COPPER  ; 
VERDIGRIS  ; 
BLUE  VITRIOL. 

Demulcent  fluids  to  induce  vom- 
iting, stomach-pump,  albumen  in 
large  excess,  milk,  cooking  soda, 
iron  filings,  manna,  preparations  of 
sulphur. 

Belladona,  calcarea 
carb.,  china,  coc. 
dulc.  (?),  hep.  sulph., 
ipec.,  iner.  corr..  nux 
v.,  rhus,  sulphur. 

IRON. 

Sodic  carbonate  ;  mucilaginous 
drinks. 

Arnica,  arsenicum, 
belladona,  china, 
hep.  s.,  ipec.,  mere., 
puls.,  verat. 

LEAD; 
ACETATE  OF 
LEAD  (Sugar  of 
Lead)  ; 
WHITE  LEAD; 
LITHARGE. 

Emetic  —  mustard.  Follow  with 
zincic  sulphate  (Epsom  or  Glauber 
salts).  Antidote  is  weak  sulphuric 
acid.  Take  large  draughts  of  milk 
containing  white  of  eggs. 

Alum,  acid,  sulph. 
in  the  shape  of  a 
lemonade,  belladona, 
hyos.,  mere.,  nux  v., 
op.,  plat.,  pulsatilla, 
sabad.,  sec.  c.,  strain., 
strychnine. 

IODINE. 

Starch  or  wheat  flour  beat  in  wa- 
ter, taken  in  large  quantities.  Take 
a  mustard  emetic  ;  tepid  baths. 

(Mercurius,  arseni- 
cum), antimony,  cam- 
p  h  o  r  ,  arsenicum, 
china,  chin-sulph., 
coffea,  hep.  s.,  op., 
etc. 

MERCURY  ; 
CORROSIVE 
SUBLIMATE 
(bug  poison)  ; 
WHITE  PRECIP- 
ITATE ; 
RED  PRECIPI- 
TATE 
(Vermilion). 

Beat  the  whites  of  six  eggs  (albu- 
men) in  one  quart  of  cold  water  ; 
give  a  cupful  every  two  minutes. 
Induce  vomiting.     A  substitute  for 
eggs  is  soap-suds  slightly  thickened 
with  wheat  flour.     The  white  of  one 
egg  neutralizes  four  grains  of  the 
poison. 
Emetics  should  not  be  given. 

Acid,  nitric.,  acid, 
phos.,  am.  c.,  am., 
ars.,  asaf.,  acer., 
aurum  m.,  bell., 
camphor,  carb.  v., 
china,  con.,  cupr., 
dulc.,  elec.,  ferr.  iod., 
opium,  phosphorus, 
staph.,  sulphate  of 
zinc,  etc.  ;  white  of 
an  egg. 

NITRATE  OF  POT- 
ASH (Saltpetre)  ; 
NITRATE  OF 
SODA  (Chili 
Saltpetre). 

Take  at  once  a  mustard  emetic  ; 
drink  copious  draughts  of  warm 
water;  followed  with  oil  or  cream. 

Same. 

PEARL-ASH  LEY 
(fm  wood  ashes); 
SALTS  OF 
TARTAR. 

Drink  freely  of  vinegar  and  wa- 
ter; followed  with  a  mucilage,  as 
flaxseed  tea. 

Same. 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 
POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES— (Continued). 


597 


POISON. 

ANTIDOTE  AND  REMEDIES. 
(Large  doses.) 

ANTIDOTE. 
(Homceopathically—  small 
doses. 

PHOSPHORUS 
MATCHES  ;  RAT 
EXTERMINATOR. 

Give  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cal- 
ciiied  magnesia  ;  followed  by  muci- 
laginous drinks. 

Camphor,  nux  v., 
coffea,  vinum. 

CARBONIC  ACID 
GAS  (charcoal 
fumes)  ; 
CHLORINE  GAS  ; 
NITROUS  OXIDE 
GAS  ;  or  ORDI- 
NARY GAS  ; 
BURNING  FLUID. 

Fresh  air  and  artificial  respira- 
tion ;  may  inhale  ammonia,  ether, 
or  the  vapor  of  warm  water. 

Same. 

ACONITE 
or  ACONITIN 
(Monkshood). 

Thorough  evacuation  of  the 
stomach,  either  by  an  emetic  (mus- 
tard) or  the  stomach-pump  ;  ammo- 
nia and  brandy,  and  the  use  of  stim- 
ulating injections;  free  use  of 
finely-powdered  animal  charcoal  ; 
vegetable  infusion  containing  tar- 
taric  acid.  Tincture  of  nux  vomica. 
Iodine  and  potassic  iodide.  Keep 
patient  active.  Emetics  —  mustard, 
zincic  sulphate,  or  ipecac.  Wine, 
vegetable  acids  (vinegar  acid  fruits). 

Camphor,  nux  v.  , 
par.  (?),  guacco  (?) 

ATROPIN  ; 
BELLADONNA 
(Deadly  Night- 
shade). 

An  emetic  and  use  of  stomach- 
pump,  as  with  aconite.  Morphine 
administered  by  the  mouth  or  sub- 
cutaneous injection.  Drink  black 
coffee. 

Black  coffee,  cam- 
phor, hepar  sulph., 
opium,  puls.,  vinum, 
zinc. 

DATURIN. 

Same  as  above. 

Same. 

HELLEBORE  ; 
HELLEB  NIGER. 

Emesis  and  subsequent  stimula- 
tion. Opium  has  been  used. 

Camphor,  china. 

NICOTIN. 

Same  as  above. 

Same. 

OPIUM. 

Any  portion  of  the  unabsorbed 
poison  should  be  removed  quickly 
from  the  stomach.  Use  the  stom- 
ach-putop,  or  an  emetic  of  gr.  xx  or 
gr.  xxx  zincic  sulphate,  or  about 
gr.  x  cupric  sulphate.  Or  powdered 
mustard  or  salt.  Keep  patient  in 

Large      doses     of 
black  coffee,  also  by 
injection  ;    camphor, 
ether,  am.  c.,  natr., 
ipec.,  asaf. 
Of    small     doses  : 
bell.,   camph.,    coff., 

598  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES — (Continued). 


POISON. 


ANTIDOTE  AND  REMEDIES. 
(Large  doses.) 


ANTIDOTE. 
(Homoeopathic-ally — small 


OPIUM 

(Continued). 


motion.  Apply  cold  water  to  head 
and  chest.  Belladonna  is  recom- 
mended as  an  antidote. 


hyos.,  ipec.,  mere., 
strychnine,  nux.  v., 
plumb.,  stram.,  vi- 
num. 


STRYCHNINE, 

or 
Nux  VOMICA. 


An  emetic,  or  use  of  the  stomach- 
pump  ;  internal  use  of  chloroform 
by  inhalation  ;  tannic  acid,  25  parts 
of  tannin  to  one  of  strychnine ;  so- 
lution of  potassic  iodide,  iodine, 
chlorine,  camphor,  animal  charcoal, 
lard  or  fat,  nicotin. 


Of  large  doses  : 
wine,  coffee,  camph., 
opium. 

Of  small  doses  : 
alcohol,  bel.,  camph., 
cham.,  cocc.,  coff., 
op.,  puls.,  stram. 


As  a  rule,  "for  vegetable  poisons  give  an  emetic  of  mustard;  drink  freely 
of  warm  water  ;  irritate  the  throat  with  a  feather  to  induce  vomiting.  Keep 
the  patient  awake  until  a  physician  arrives." 

STING  OP  INSECTS. — Ammonia;  or  cooking  soda,  moistened  with  water, 
applied  in  the  form  of  a  paste.  The  wound  may  be  sucked,  followed  by 
application  of  water.  Pennyroyal.  Ledum  palustri. 

FOB  BURNS.  —Apply  immediately  hot  alcohol  or  turpentine  ;  never  cold 
water.  May  be  bathed  afterwards  with  a  mixture  of  lime-water  and  sweet 
oil. 

THERMOMETERS. 

There  are  three  differently  graduated  thermometers  in  use, 
namely,  Fahrenheit,  Centigrade,  and  Reaumur. 


No.  1  =  Fahrenheit. 
No.  2  =  Centigrade. 
No.  3  —  Reaumur. 

To  convert  the  scale  of  one  ther- 
mometer into  either  of  the  others  : 

n°C.  =  |.  n°R.  =  £n°+32°F. 
n°  R.  =  f  n°  C.  =  f  n°  +  32°  F. 
n°  F.  =  f  (n°—  32°)  C.  =  f  (n°-32°)  R. 


100 

20- 

( 

mmm 

fc 
«n 

( 

•V 

L 

•c. 

THE   CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


599 


COMPARISON    OF   FAHRENHEIT   AND    CENTIGRADE 
THERMOMETERS. 


Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

—15 

—26.11 

49 

9.44 

113 

45.00 

177 

80.55 

241 

116.11 

—14 

—25.55 

50 

10.00 

114 

45.55 

178 

81.11 

242 

116.66 

13 

-25.00 

51 

10.55 

115 

46.11 

179 

81.66 

243 

117.22 

12 

24.44 

52 

11.11 

116 

46.66 

180 

82.22 

244 

117.77 

11 

23.89 

53 

11.66 

117 

47.22 

181 

82.77 

245 

118.33 

10 

23.33 

54 

12.22 

118 

47.77 

182 

83.33 

246 

118.83 

9 

22.78 

55 

12.77 

119 

48.33 

183 

83.88 

247 

119.44 

8 

2-2.2-2 

56 

13.33 

120 

48.88 

184 

84.44 

248 

120.00 

7 

21.67 

57 

13.88 

121 

49.44 

185 

85.00 

249 

120.55 

6 

21.11 

58 

14.44 

122 

50.00 

186 

85.55 

250 

121.11 

5 

20.55 

59 

15.00 

123 

50.55 

187 

86.11 

251 

121.66 

4 

20.00 

60 

15.55 

124 

51.11 

188 

86.66 

252 

122.22 

3 

19.44 

61 

16.11 

125 

51.66 

189 

87.22 

253 

122.77 

2 

18.89 

62 

16.66 

126 

52.22 

190 

87.77 

254 

123.33 

1 

is.as 

63 

17.22 

127 

52.77 

191 

88.33 

255 

123.88 

0 

17.78 

64 

17.77 

128 

53.33 

192 

88.88 

256 

124.44 

+  1 

—17.22 

65 

18.33 

129 

53.88 

193 

89.44 

257 

125.00 

+  2 

-16.66 

6:i 

18.88 

130 

54.44 

194 

90.00 

258 

125.55 

3 

—16.11 

67 

19.44 

131 

55.00 

195 

90.55 

259 

126.11 

4 

15.55 

68 

20.00 

132 

55.55 

196 

91.11 

260 

126.66 

5 

15.00 

69 

20.55 

133 

56.11 

197 

91.66 

261 

127.22 

6 

14.44 

70 

21.11 

134 

56.66 

198 

92.22 

262 

127.77 

7 

13.88 

71 

21.66 

135 

57.22 

199 

92.77 

2(53 

128.33 

8 

13.33 

72 

22.22 

136 

57.77 

200 

93.33 

264 

128.88 

9 

12.77 

73 

22.77 

137 

58.33 

201 

93.88 

265 

129.44 

10 

12.22 

74 

23.33 

138 

58.88 

202 

94.44 

266 

130.00 

11 

11.66 

75 

23.88 

139 

59.44 

203 

95.00 

267 

130.55 

12 

11.11 

76 

24.44 

140 

60.00 

204 

95.55 

268 

131.11 

13 

10.55 

77 

25.00 

141 

60.55 

205 

96.11 

269 

131.66 

14 

10.00 

78 

25.55 

142 

61.11 

206 

96.66 

270 

132.22 

15 

9.44 

79 

26.11 

143 

61.66 

207 

97.22 

271 

132.77 

16 

8.88 

80 

26.66 

144 

62.22 

208 

97.77 

272 

133.33 

17 

8.33 

81 

27.22 

145 

62.77 

299 

98.33 

273 

133.88 

18 

—7.77 

82 

27.77 

146 

63.33 

210 

98.88 

274 

134.44 

19 

—7.22 

83 

28.33 

147 

63.88 

211 

99.44 

275 

135.00 

20 

—6.66 

84 

28.88 

148 

64.44 

212 

10000 

276 

135.55 

21 

6.11 

85 

29.44 

149 

65.00 

213  i  100.55 

277 

136.11 

22 

5.55 

86 

30.00 

150 

65.55 

214  |  101.11 

278 

136.66 

23 

5.00 

87 

30.55 

151 

66.11 

215 

101.66 

279 

137.22 

24 

4.44 

88 

31.11 

152 

66.66 

216 

102.22 

280 

137.77 

25 

3.88 

89 

31.66 

153 

67.22 

217 

102.77 

281 

138.33 

26 

3.33 

90 

32.22 

154 

67.77 

218 

103.33 

282 

138.88 

27 

2.77 

91 

32.77 

155 

68.33 

219 

103.88 

283 

139.44 

28 

2.2-2 

92 

33.33 

156 

68.88 

2-20 

104.44 

284 

140.00 

29 

1.66 

93 

33.88 

157 

69.44 

221 

105.00 

285 

140.55 

30 

1.11 

94 

34.44 

158 

70.00 

222 

10555 

286 

141.11 

31 

.55 

95 

35.00 

159 

70.55 

223 

106.11 

287 

141.66 

32 

.0 

96 

35.55 

160 

71.11 

224 

106.66 

288 

142.22 

33 

+  0.55 

97 

36.11 

161 

71.66 

225 

107.22 

289 

142.77 

+  34 

+  1.11 

98 

36.66 

162 

72.22 

226 

107.7? 

290 

143.33 

35 

1.66 

99 

37.22 

163 

72.77 

227 

108.33 

291 

143.88 

36 

2.22 

100 

37.77 

164 

73.33 

228 

108.88 

292 

144.44 

37 

2.77 

101 

38.33 

165 

73.88 

229 

109.44 

293 

145.00 

38 

3.a3 

102 

38.88 

166 

74.44 

230 

110.00 

294 

145.55 

39 

3.88 

103 

39.44 

167 

75.00 

231 

110.55 

295 

146.11 

40 

4.44 

104 

40.00 

168 

75.55 

232 

111.11 

296 

146.66 

41 

5.00 

105 

40.55 

169 

76.11 

233 

111.66 

297 

147.22 

42 

5.55 

106 

41.11 

170 

76.66 

234 

11-2.22 

29S 

147.77 

43 

6.11 

107 

41.66 

171 

77.'22 

235 

112.77 

299 

148.33 

44 

6.66 

108 

42.22 

172 

77.77 

236 

113.33 

300 

148.88 

45 

7.22 

109 

42.77 

173 

78.33 

237 

113.88 

400 

204.44 

46 

7.77 

110 

43.33 

174 

78.88 

238 

114.44 

600 

315.55 

47 

8.33 

111 

43.88 

175 

79.44 

239 

115.00 

800 

433.88 

48 

8.88 

112 

44.44 

176 

80.00 

240 

115.55 

1000 

537.77 

600 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


COMPARISON    OF    CENTIGRADE    AND    FAHRENHEIT 
THERMOMETERS. 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

276 

461 

-49 

—562 

19 

66.2 

420 

788 

1100 

2012 

—260 

-436 

-48 

—54.4 

20 

68.0 

430 

806 

1110 

2030 

—250 

—418 

-47 

—52.6 

21 

69.8 

440 

824 

1120 

2048 

—240 

—400 

-46 

—50.8 

22 

71.6 

450 

842 

1130 

2066 

—230 

—382 

—45 

—49.0 

23 

73.4 

400 

860 

1140 

2084 

—220 

-364 

—44 

-47.2 

24 

75.2 

470 

878 

1150 

2102 

—210 

—346 

—43 

—45.4 

25 

77.0 

480 

896 

1160 

2120 

—200 

-328 

—42 

-43.6 

26 

78.8 

490 

914 

1170 

2138 

—190 

—310 

—41 

—41.8 

27 

80.6 

500 

932 

1180 

2156 

—180 

—298 

-40 

—40.0 

28 

82.4 

510 

950 

1190 

2174 

—170 

—  2T4 

—39 

-38.2 

29 

84.2 

520 

968 

1200 

2192 

—160 

—256 

-38 

—36.4 

30 

86.0 

530 

986 

1210 

2210 

—150 

—238 

—37 

—34.6 

31 

87.8 

540 

1004 

1220 

2228 

—140 

—220 

—36 

-32.8 

32 

89.6 

550 

1022 

1230 

2246 

—130 

—202 

—35 

—31.0 

33 

914 

560 

1040 

1240 

2264 

—120 

—184 

—34 

—29.2 

34 

93.2 

570 

1058 

1250 

2282 

—110 

—166 

—33 

—27.4 

35 

95.0 

580 

1076 

1260 

2300 

—100 

—148.0 

—32 

-25.6 

36 

96.8 

590 

1094 

1270 

2318 

—  99 

—146.2 

—31 

—23.8 

37 

98.6 

600 

1112 

1280 

2336 

—  98 

-  -144.4 

—30 

—22.0 

38 

100.4 

610 

1130 

1290 

2354 

—  97 

—142.6 

—29 

—20.2 

39 

102.2 

620 

1148 

1300 

2372 

—  96 

—140.8 

—28 

-18.4 

40 

104.0 

630 

1166 

1310 

2390 

-  95 

—139.0 

—27 

—16.6 

41 

105.8 

640 

1184 

1320 

2408 

—  94 

—137.2 

-26 

-14.8 

42 

107.6 

650 

1202 

1330 

2426 

—  93 

—135.4 

-25 

—13.0 

43 

109.4 

660 

1220 

1340 

2444 

—  92 

-133.6 

—24 

—11.2 

44 

111.2 

670 

1238 

1350 

2462 

—  91 

—131.8 

—23 

—  9.4 

45 

113.0 

680 

1256 

1360 

2480 

—  90 

-130.0 

—22 

—  7.6 

46 

114.8 

690 

1274 

1370 

2498 

—  89 

—128.2 

—21 

—  5.8 

47 

1166 

700 

1292 

1380 

2516 

—  88 

—126.4 

—20 

—  4.0 

48 

118.4 

710 

1310 

1390 

2534 

—  87 

—124.6 

—19 

—  2.2 

49 

120.2 

720 

1328 

1400 

2552 

—  86 

—122.8 

—18 

—  0.4 

50 

122.0 

730 

1346 

1410 

2570 

—  85 

—121.0 

—17 

+  1.4 

60 

140 

740 

1364 

1420 

2588 

—  84 

—119.2 

—16 

3.2 

70 

158 

750 

1382 

1430 

2606 

—  83 

—117.4 

—15 

5.0 

80 

176 

760 

1400 

1440 

2624 

—  82 

—115.6 

—14 

68 

90 

194 

770 

1418 

1450 

2642 

—  81 

-113.8 

—13 

8.6 

100 

212 

780 

1436 

1460 

2660 

—  80 

—112.0 

—12 

10.4 

110 

230 

790 

1454 

1470 

2678 

—  79 

-110.2 

—11 

12.2 

120 

248 

800 

1472 

1480 

2696 

—  78 

—108.4 

—10 

14.0 

130 

266 

810 

1490 

1490 

2714 

—  77 

—106.6 

—  9 

15.8 

140 

284 

820 

1508 

1500 

2732 

—  76 

—104.8 

—  8 

17.6 

150 

302 

830 

1526 

1510 

2750 

—  75 

—103.0 

—  7 

19.4 

160 

320 

840 

1544 

1520 

2768 

—  74 

—101.2 

—  6 

21.2 

170 

338 

850 

1562 

1530 

2786 

—  73 

—  99.4 

-5 

23.0 

180 

356 

860 

1580 

1540 

2804 

—  72 

—  97.6 

—  4 

24.8 

190 

374 

870 

1698 

1550 

2822 

—  71 

—  95.8 

—  3 

26.6 

200 

392 

880 

1616 

1560 

2840 

—  70 

—  94.0 

—  2 

28.4 

210 

410 

890 

1634 

1570 

2858 

—  69 

—  92.2 

—  1 

30.2 

220 

428 

900 

1652 

1580 

2876 

—  68 

—  90.4 

Zero. 

+  32. 

230 

446 

910 

1670 

1590 

2894 

—  67 

—  88.6 

+  1 

+  33.8 

240 

464 

920 

1688 

1600 

2912 

—  66 

—  86.8 

2 

35.6 

250 

482 

930 

1706 

1610 

2930 

—  65 

—  85.0 

3 

37.4 

260 

500 

940 

1724 

1620 

2948 

—  64 

—  832 

4 

39.2 

270 

518 

950 

1742 

1630 

2966 

—  63 

—  81.4 

5 

41.0 

280 

536 

960 

1760 

1640 

2984 

-  62 

—  79.6 

6 

42.8 

290 

554 

970 

1778 

1650 

3002 

—  61 

—  77.8 

7 

44.6 

300 

572 

980 

1796 

1660 

3020 

—  60 

—  76.0 

8 

46.4 

310 

590 

990 

1814 

1670 

3038 

—  59 

—  74.2 

9 

48.2 

320 

608 

1000 

1832 

1680 

3056 

—  58 

—  72.4 

10 

50.0 

330 

626 

1010 

1850 

1690 

3074 

—  57 

—  70.6 

11 

51.8 

340 

644 

1020 

1868 

1700 

3092 

—  56 

—  68.8 

12 

53.6 

350 

662 

1030 

1886 

1710 

3110 

—  55 

—  67.0 

13 

55.5 

360 

680 

1040 

1904 

1720 

3128 

—  54 

—  65.2 

14 

57.2 

370 

698 

1050 

1922 

1730 

3146 

-  53 

—  63.4 

15 

59.0 

380 

716 

1060 

1940 

1740 

3164 

—  52 

—  61.6 

16 

60.8 

390 

734 

1070 

1958 

1750 

3182 

—  51 

—  59.8 

17 

62.6 

400 

752 

1080 

1976 

1760 

3200 

—  50 

—  58.0 

18 

64.4 

410 

770 

1090 

1994 

1770 

3218 

THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


601 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

1780 

3236 

1870 

3398 

1950 

3542 

2030 

3686 

2110 

3830 

1790 

3254 

1880 

3416 

1960 

3560 

2040 

3704 

2120 

3848 

1800 

3272 

1890 

3434 

1970 

3578 

2050 

3722 

2130 

4166 

1810 

3290 

1900 

3452 

1980 

3596 

2060 

3740 

2140 

4184 

1820 

3308 

1910 

3470 

1990 

3614 

2070 

3758 

2150 

4162 

1830 

3326 

1920 

3488 

2000 

3632 

2080 

3776 

2160 

4180 

1840 

3344 

1930 

3506 

2010 

3650 

2090 

3794 

2180 

4216 

1850 

3362 

1940 

3524 

2020 

3668 

2100 

3812 

2200 

4252 

I860 

3380 

NUMBER   OF    DEGREES  CENTIGRADE  =  NUMBER   OF 
DEGREES   FAHRENHEIT. 


Bid 

TENTHS  OF  A  DEGKEE—  CENTIGRADE  SCALE. 

in 

•0 

.1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

.5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

0 

0.00 

0.18 

0.36 

0.54 

0.72 

0.90 

1.08 

1.26 

1.44 

1.62 

i 

1.80 

1.98 

2.16 

2.34 

2.55 

2.70 

2.88 

3.06 

3.24 

3.42 

2 

3.60 

3.78 

3.96 

4.14 

4.32 

4.50 

4.68 

4.86 

5.04 

5.22 

3 

5.40 

5.58 

5.76 

5.94 

6.12 

6.30 

6.48 

6.66 

6.84 

7.02 

4 

7.20 

7.38 

7.56 

7.74 

7.92 

8.10 

828 

8.46 

8.64 

8.82 

5 

9.00 

9.18 

936 

9.54 

9.72 

9.90 

10.08 

10.26 

10.44 

10.62 

6 

10.80 

10.1)8 

11.16 

11.34 

11.52 

11.70 

11.88 

12.06 

12.24 

12.42 

7 

12.60 

12.78 

12.96 

13.14 

13.32 

13.50 

13.68 

13.86 

14.04 

14.22 

8 

14.40 

14.58 

14.76 

14.94 

15.12 

15.30 

15.48 

15.66 

15.84 

16.02 

9 

16.20 

16.38 

16.56 

16.74 

16.92 

17.10 

17.28 

17.46 

17.64 

17.82 

NUMBER   OF    DEGREES   FAHRENHEIT  =  NUMBER 
DEGREES   CENTIGRADE. 


OF 


01     , 

TENTHS  OF  A  DEGREE—  FAHRENHEIT  SCALE. 

fife 

.0 

.1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Cent, 

Cent. 

Cent. 

0 

0.00 

0.06 

0.11 

0.17 

0.22 

0.28 

0.33 

0.39 

0.44 

0.50 

1 

0.56 

0.61 

0.67 

0.72 

0.78 

0.83 

0.89 

0.94 

1.00 

1.06 

2 

1.11 

1.17 

1.22 

1.28 

1.33 

1.39 

1.44 

1.50 

1.56 

1.6 

3 

1.67 

1.72 

1.78 

1.83 

1.89 

1.94 

2.00 

2.06 

2.11 

2.17 

4 

2.22 

2.28 

2.33 

2.39 

2.44 

2.50 

2.56 

2.61 

2.67 

2.72 

5 

2.78 

2.83 

2.89 

2.94 

3.00 

3.06 

3.11 

3.17 

3.22 

3.28 

6 

3.33 

3.39 

3.44 

3.50 

3.56 

3.61 

3.67 

3.72 

3.78 

3.80 

7 

3.89 

3.94 

4.00 

4.06 

4.11 

4.17 

4.22 

4.28 

4.33 

4.39 

8 

4.44 

4.50 

4.56 

4.61 

4.67 

4.72 

4.78 

4.83 

4.89 

4.94 

9 

5.00 

5.06 

5.11 

5.17 

5.22 

5.28 

5.33 

5.39 

5.44 

5.50 

602 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


EXPANSION    OR    DILATATION    OF   SOLIDS. 

(FABADAY.) 
At  212°,  the  length  of  the  bar  at  32°  =  1. 


Bismuth 1.0013908 

Brass 1.0019062 

Cast-iron 1.0011112 

Cement 1.001435 

Copper 1.001745 

Fire-brick 1.0004928 

Glass 1.0008545 

Gold 1.001495 

Granite 1.0007894 

Lead..  .1.0028426 


Platinum 1.0009542 

Sandstone 1.001743 

Silver 1.00201 

Slate 1.0011436 

Steel 1.0011899 

Stock-brick 1.0005502 

Tin 1.002 

Wrought-iron 1.0012575 

Zinc..  .1.002942 


DIFFERENT    REMARKABLE  TEMPERATURES. 

CENTIGRADE. 
GREATEST  ARTIFICIAL  COLD  produced  by  a  bath  of  carbon 

bisulphide  and  liquid  nitrous  acid  ................... 

GREATEST  COLD  produced  by  ether  and  liquid  carbonic 

anhydride  ......................................... 

GREATEST  NEUTRAL  COLD  recorded  in  arctic  expeditions.. 
Mercury  freezes  ............  ............................ 

Sodic  phosphate  ..........  9  parts  by  weight  ........  ) 

Acid  nitric  (dilute)  .......  4     "       "        "      ........  ) 

Ammonic  nitrate  .....  ,  .  .  .  5  parts  by  weight 

Acid  nitric  (dilute)  ........  4     "       "        " 

Sodic  sulphate  ...........  6     "      "        " 

Sodic  sulphate  ...........  3  parts  by  weight 

Acid  nitric  (dilute)  ........  2     "       "        " 

Pounded  ice  or  snow  ......  2  parts  by  weight  ........  ) 

Sodic  chloride  ............   1      "      "        "      ........  ) 

Sodic  sulphate  ...........   8  parts  by  weight 

Acid  hydrochloric  ........  5     "       "        " 

Ammonic  nitrate  .........   1  part    by  weight 

Water  ...................   1      "       "        " 

Sodic  phosphate  ..........  9  parts  by  weight 

Ammouic  nitrate  ........  6     "      "        " 

Acid  nitric  (dilute)  ........  4     "       "        '« 

2  parts  by  weight  .....  ;  •  •  I  _36<>.llto  _55o.5 


—140° 

—110° 

—49° 

—39° 

+  10°  to  —29° 

+  10°  to  —  2ff° 

,  1  A°  f        -.no 

~T~  l-\)       tO     -  it/ 

+  10°  to  —18° 

+  10°  to  -17° 
1()o  tQ  _13o  gg 

10°  to  —29°.  44 


Acid  sulphuric  ...........  10 


to  - 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


603 


CENTIGRADE. 

Snow 3  parts  by  weight [  Q0  to  _4(r  n 

Potash  fused 4     "      "        "      } 

Sodic  sulphate 3  parts  by  weight )  10°  to  -1<T  44 

Acid  nitrous  (dilute) 2     "      "        "      i 

Sodic  phosphate 9  parts  by  weight )  1Qo  to  _^0  ^ 

Acid  nitrous  (dilute) 4     "      "         "      ) 

Ammonia  (liquid)  freezes —43°. 33 

Blood  (human),  heat  of. 36°. 67 

"           "         freezes 3°. 89 

Brandy  freezes —21°. 67 

Charcoal  burns 433°.33 

Ice  melts 0° 

Greatest  density  of  water +4° 

Blood  heat 36°. 6 

Water  boils 100°.00 

Mercury  boils 350°. 00 

Red-heat  (just  visible— Daniel) 526° 

Silver  melts 1002° 

Cast-iron  melts 1530° 

Highest  heat  of  wind  furnace 1804° 

Point  of  absolute  cold  deprived  of  all  heat —275° 

Lard  melts 35°.00 

Milk  freezes — l°.ll 

Nitrous  oxide  freezes —101°. 11 

Nitric  acid  (Sp.  Gr.  1.424)  freezes -42°.77 

Sea-water  freezes 2°.22 

Snow  and  salt  (equal  parts) 17°. 78 

Sulphuric  acid  (Sp.  Gr.  1.641)  freezes -42°.  7 

Acetous  fermentation  begins 25°. 55 

ends 31°.ll 

Vinous  fermentation. .  15°. 55  to  25°.00 


TABLE  OF  BOILING  POINTS  OF  SATURATED  SOLUTIONS. 
(WATT'S  DICT.  CHEM. — LEGRAND.) 


SALT. 


WEIGHT  or  SALT 

DISSOLVED  IN 
100  PARTS  OPHaO. 


BOILING  POINT. 


Potassic  acetate. . . 

Calcic  nitrate 

Potassic  carbonate. 

Sodic  acetate 

Sodic  nitrate 


798.2 
362.2 
205.0 
209.0 

224.8 


169°  C. 

151° 

135° 

124°.4 

121° 


604 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


BOILING  POINTS  OF  SATURATED  SOLUTIONS — (Continued) 


SALT. 

WEIGHT  OF  SALT 
DISSOLVED  IN 

100PABTLOFH2O. 

BOILING  POINT. 

335.1 

115°  9 

Ammonic  chloride  

88.9 

114°  2 

Potassic  tartrate  ...               .    ..     

296  2 

114°  7 

Potassic  chlorate  

61  5 

104°  2 

Soclic  chloride 

41  2 

108°  4 

Sodic  phosphate  (dried)  ...       . 

112  6 

106°  6 

117  5 

117°  8 

485 

104°  6 

60  1 

104°  4 

BOILING    POINTS  CORRESPONDING    TO    ALTITUDES    OF 
THE    BAROMETER. 


BABOMETEB. 

BOILING 
POINT. 

BABOMETEB. 

BOILING 
POINT. 

BABOMETEB. 

BOILING 
POINT. 

15  inches. 
16.06 
17 
18 
19 
20 

81.66C  C. 
83.33 

84.77 
86.22 
87.61 
88.94 

21  inches. 
22.04 
23.02 
24.03 
25.03 
26.01 

90.22°  C. 
91.50 
92.66 
93.83 
94.94 
95.99 

27.02  in. 
28.00 
29.03 
30 
31.01 

97.05°  C. 
98.05 
99.05 
100.00 
100.94 

TABLE    OF    THE    CORRESPONDING    HEIGHTS    OF    THE 

BAROMETER  IN   MILLIMETRES  AND  ENGLISH  INCHES. 

(FROM  MILLER'S  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY.) 


MlLLI- 
METBE8. 

ENGLISH 

INCHES. 

MELLI- 

METBES. 

ENGLISH 

INCHES. 

MlLLI- 

METBES. 

ENGLISH 

INCHES. 

720 



28.347 

739 

_ 

29.095 

758 

— 

29.843 

721 

_ 

28.386 

740 

— 

29.134 

759 

— 

29.882 

722 

-= 

28.425 

741 

— 

29.174 

760 

= 

29.922 

723 

— 

28.465 

742 

— 

29.213 

761 

— 

29.961 

724 

_ 

28.504 

743 

— 

29.252 

762 

— 

30.000 

725 

_ 

28543 

744 

— 

29.292 

763 

•— 

30.039 

726 



28.583 

745 

— 

29.331 

764 

— 

30.079 

727 

— 

28.622 

746 

_ 

29.370 

765 

— 

30.118 

728 

— 

28.662 

747 

_ 

29.410 

766 

— 

30.158 

729 

_ 

28.701 

748 

= 

29.449 

767 

— 

30.197 

730 



28.740 

749 

__ 

29.488 

768 

— 

30.236 

731 



28.780 

750 

_ 

29.528 

769 

— 

30.276 

732 

— 

28,819 

751 

SB 

29.567 

770 

= 

30.315 

733 

— 

28.858 

752 

— 

29.606 

771 

= 

30.355 

734 



28.898 

753 

_ 

29.645 

772 

— 

30.394 

735 

— 

28.937 

754 

— 

29.685 

773 

— 

30.433 

736 

_ 

28.976 

755 

— 

29.724 

774 

— 

30.473 

737 

— 

29.016 

756 

— 

29.764 

775 

— 

30.512 

738 

= 

29.055 

757 

= 

29.803 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


605 


WEIGHTS    AND     MEASURES. 

FRENCH    MEASURES  OF   LENGTH. 
(According  to  United  States  Standard.) 


NAMES. 

METBES. 

U.  S.  IN. 

U.  S.  FT. 

U.  S.  YDS. 

U.  S.  Mi. 

Millimetre*.  . 
Centimetref.  . 
Decimetre.  .  .  . 
Metre;}: 

ToVff    metres. 

TlJTF 

P 

.039368 
.393685 
3.93685 
39  3685 

.003281 
.032807 
.328071 
3  28071 

.109357 
1  09357 

— 

Decametre.  .  . 
Hectometre  .  . 
Kilometre.  .  .  . 
Myriametre.  . 

10 
100               ) 
1000              V 
10,000           ) 

393.685 

Road     j 
measure  1 

32.8071 
328.071 
3280.71 
32807.1 

10.9357 
109.357 
1093.57 
10935.7 

.0621347 
.6213466 
6.213466 

MEASURE   OF    LENGTH. 


MILES. 

FURLONGS. 

CHAINS. 

RODS. 

YABDS. 

FEET. 

INCHES. 

1 

8 

80 

320 

1760 

5280 

63360 

0.125 

1 

10 

40 

220 

660 

7920 

0.0125 

0.1 

1 

4 

22 

66 

792 

0.003125 

0.025 

0.25 

1 

5.5 

16.5 

198 

0.00056818 

0.0045454 

0.045454 

0.181818 

1 

3 

36 

0.00018939 

0.00151515 

0.01515151 

0.0606060 

0.33333 

1 

12 

0.000015783 

0.000126262 

0.001262626 

0.00505050 

0.0277777 

0.083333 

1§ 

*  Nearly  the  -fa  part  of  an  inch.  f  Full  f  inch. 

\  Very  nearly  3  ft.  3|  in.,  which  is  too  long  by  only  one  part  in  6062. 
The  metre,  at  the  time  its  length  was  fixed  by  the  French  government, 
was  supposed  to  be  a  ten-millionth  part  of  a  quadrant  of  a  meridian  circle 
of  the  earth  passing  through  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona. 

Subsequent  more  extended  geodetic  measurements  have  shown  that  it 
differs  from  this  by  about  ^Vs  of  its  length.  A  platinum  rod  is  therefore 
used  as  the  standard,  which  measures  at  32°  (Fahr.)— 0°  (C.)  39.3685  U.  S. 
inches  =  one  metre. 

linch 

1  foot  

1  yard 

1  rod 

1  furlong 201.1643      " 

1  mile 1609.3149       " 

§  The  Standard  Measure  of  Length  in  the  United  States  is  a  brass  rod  = 
1  yard  at  the  temperature  of  32°  Fall.  The  length  of  a  pendulum  vibrating 
seconds  in  vacuo  at  Philadelphia  is  1.08614  yards,  at  +  32°  Fahrenheit. 


2.54     centimetres. 
0.3048  metres. 
0.9144      " 
5.0297      " 


606 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


The  inch  is  sometimes  divided  into  3  barleycorns,  or  12  lines. 

1  point    =  -fa  inch. 
6  points  —    1  line  =  T^  inch. 
12  lines    =    1  inch. 


FRENCH    SQUARE    MEASURE. 
(According  to  U.  8.  Standard.) 


NAMES. 

U.  S.  SQ.  IN. 

U.  S.  SQ.  FEET. 

U.  S.  SQ.  YDS. 

U.  S.  ACRES. 

001549 

00001076 

0000012 

Sq.  Centimetre  

.154988 

00107631 

0001196 

Sq  Decimetre 

10  4988 

1  076H058 

0119589 

Sq.  Metre,  or  CENTTARE. 
Sq.  Decametre,  or  ARE.  . 
DECARE  (not  used)  

1549.88 

154988 

10.763058 
1076.3058 
10763  058 

1.195895 
119.5895 
1195  895 

.000247 
.024709 
247086 

HECTARE        

107630  58 

11958  95 

2  47086 

Sq.  Kilometre  
Sq.  Myriametre  

SQ.  MILES. 
.3860716 
38  60716 

10763058 

1195895 

247.086 
24708  6 

1  square  inch ..  6.49      square  centimetres. 

1  "       foot 0.0929      "       metres. 

1  "       yard 0.8360      "  " 

1  "       rod 25.292        "  " 

1  "       rood 10.1168  ares. 

1  "       acre 40.4671     " 

1  "  mile.  ...                                 .  258.9894  hectares. 


MEASURE    OF    SURFACE. 


SQ.  MELES. 

ACRES. 

SQ.  CHAINS. 

SQ.  RODS. 

SQ.  YARDS. 

SQ.  FT. 

SQ.  IN. 

1 

0.001562 
0.0001562 
0.000009764 
0.000000323 
0.0000000358 
0.00000000025 

640 
1 
0.1 
0.00625 
0.0002066 
0.000002296 
0.000000143 

6400 
10 

0.0625 
0.002066 
0.00002296 
0.00000143 

102400 
100 
16 
1 
0.0330 
0.00367 
0.00002552 

3097600 
4840 
484 
30.25 
1 
0.1111111 
0.0007716 

27878400 
43560 
4356 
272.25 
9 
1 
0.006944 

4014489600 
696960 
69696 
39204 
1296 
144 
1 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


607 


MEASURES    OF    CAPACITY. 
(According  to  U.  S.  Standard.) 


NAME. 

LITRES. 

CUBIC 
MEASURE. 

DRY  MEASURE. 

LIQUID 
MEASURE. 

CUBIC 
INCHES. 

Millilitre,  or  Cubic 
Centimetre  . 

[nfeff 

1  cu.  cent. 

.001816  dry  pint. 

.0084525  gill. 

.0610165 

Centilitre 

T£O 

10  "      " 

.01816     u      " 

.084525     " 

.610165 

Decilitre  

Litre 

ft 

100  "      " 

1000  "      " 

.1816       "      •» 

.1135  pk. 

=  .908  dry  qt. 

f     .8425     "    I 
{=.  21131  pt.   j 

j     1.05656  qt.  j 

6.10165 
61.0165 

Decalitre,  or  Centi- 

f» 

10  "  dec. 

=1.816  dry  pt. 
.283742  bu. 
=1.135   pk. 

(  =2.1131    pt.  f 

(  2.64141  U.  S.  ) 
1  liq  gallon    j 

610.165,  or 
353105  cu  ft 

Hectolitre,  or  Deci- 
stere   

j-  100 

T\T  tl  met. 

=9.08  dry  qt. 
2.83742  bu. 

(26.4141  U.S.) 
|  liq.  gallon,  j 

CUBIC  FEET. 
3.53105 

Kilolitre,  or  Stere  . 

Myriolitre,or  Deca- 
etere   ...        .... 

1000 

1  10000 

1  "      " 
10  "      •* 

28.3742     " 
283.742      " 

)  264.141  U.  S.  ) 
/  liq.  gallon.  j 
j  2641.41  U.  S.  / 
j   liq  gaUon.  f 

35.3105,  or 
1.3078cu.yd. 
353.105,  or 
13.078  cu.  yd. 

DRY    MEASURE* 

1  pint 0.55067  litres. 

1  quart 1.10135    " 

1  peck 8.8108      " 

1  bushel* 85.2432      * 

LIQUID    MEASURED 

1  minim 0.000061G  litres. 

1  fluid  drachm 0.003697      " 

1  fluid  ounce 0.029578      " 

Ipint 0.47325 

1  quart 0.9465 

Igallonf 3.786 

1  barrel 129.249 

1  hogshead 258.498 

*  The  basis  of  this  measure  is  the  old  British  Winchester  struck  bushel 
of  2150.42  cubic  inches,  or  77.627413  pounds  Avoirdupois  of  pure  water  at 
its  maximum  density.  Its  dimensions  by  law  are  18^  inches  inner  diameter, 
19  i  inches  outer  diameter,  and  8  inches  deep. 

f  The  basis  of  this  measure  in  the  United  States  is  the  old  British  wine 
gallon  of  231  cubic  inches  ;  or  8.33888  Ibs.  Avoirdupois  of  pure  water,  at  its 
maximum  density  (39°. 2  Fah.,  4°  C.),  the  barometer  at  30  inches.  A  cylin- 
der 7  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches  high  contains  230.904  cubic  inches,  or 
almost  precisely  a  gallon. 


608  THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 

UNITED    STATES    MEASURE    OF    LIQUIDS. 


GALLON. 

QUARTS. 

PINTS. 

GILLS. 

Cu.  IN. 

WT.  IN  LBS.  Av. 

1 

4 

8 

32 

231 

8.33888 

0.25 

1 

2 

8 

57.75 

2.15019 

0.125 

0.5 

1 

4 

28.875 

1.04269 

0.03125 

0.125 

0.25 

1 

7.2175 

— 

0.004329 

0.017315 

0.03463 

0.13858 

1 

0.03609 

CUBIC    MEASURE    IN    CUBIC    METRES. 

1  cubic  yard 76450  cubic  metres. 

1  cubic  foot 28.31486    "      decimetres. 

1  cubic  inch 16.38591     "      centimetres. 

MEASURE    OF    CAPACITY. 


Cu.  YD. 

BARRELS. 

BUSHELS. 

Cu.  FT. 

PECKS. 

GALLONS. 

Cu.  IN. 

1 
0.1782 
0.03961 
0.037037 
0.009902 
0.004951 
0.00002143 

5.6103 
1 
0.2222 

0.2078 
0.05555 
0.02777 
0.0001202 

25.2467 
4.5 
1 
0.804 
0.25 
0.125 
0.000465 

27 
48125 
1.2438 
1 
0.26738 
0.13369 
0.0005787 

100.987 
18 
4 
3.73809 
1 
0.5 
0.0021645 

201.974 
36 
8 
7.47619 
2 
1 
0.004329 

40658 
8316 
2150.42 
1728 
462 
231 
1 

To  convert  parts  per  100,000  into  grains  per  gallon,  multiply  by  0.7. 
"         "      •  grains  per  gallon  into  parts  per  100,000,  divide  by  0.7. 
"         "        grains  per  litre  into  grains  per  gallon,  multiply  by  70. 

BRITISH   IMPERIAL  MEASURE,   BOTH   LIQUID  AND  DRY. 

(Great  Britain  only.) 

The  basis  of  this  system  is  the  imperial  gallon  of  277.274 
cubic  inches,  or  10  pounds  Avoirdupois  of  pure  water  at  the 
temperature  of  62°  F.,  when  the  barometer  is  at  30  inches. 


MEASURES. 

AVOIRDUPOIS 
POUNDS  OF 
WATER. 

CUBIC 
INCHES. 

CUBIC 
FEET. 

EDGE  or  A 
CUBE  OP 
EQUAL  CAPA- 
CITY INCHES. 

4  eills 

1  pint 

1.25 
2.50 
5. 
10. 
20  I  « 
80    1] 
320    fj 
640    1  I 

84.6592 
69.3185 
138.637 

277.274 
554.548 
2218.192 
8872.768 
17745  536 

3.2605 
4.1079 
5.1756 
6.5208 
8.2157 
13.0417 

2  pints 

.1  quart 

2  ouarts 

....  1  pottle. 

2  pottles 

1  gallon 

2  gallons 

1  peck 

4  pecks     . 

.1  bushel 

i.2837 
5.1347 
10.2694 

4  bushels  .  .  . 

.  .  .1  coomb. 

THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


609 


To  reduce  imperial  liquid  measure  to  U.  S.  ones  of  the  same  name, 
multiply  by  1.20032  ;  or  add  one-fifth  part.  To  reduce  imperial  measure  to 
U.  S.  ones,  multiply  by  1.031515. 


SURVEYOR'S    MEASURE. 


INCHES. 

LINK. 

POLE. 

CHAIN. 

FURLONG. 

MILE. 

W 

1 

198 

25 

1 

792 

100 

4 

1 

7920 

1000 

40 

10 

1 

63360 

8000 

320 

80 

8 

1 

GEOGRAPHICAL  AND    NAUTICAL   MILES. 

1  statute  mile          =        5280  ft.          =        0.86875  nautical  mile. 
1  nautical  mile        =        6037.424        =        1.150  statute  mile. 


1  cable  length 
1  fathom 


ROPES  AND   CABLES 

120  fathoms 
=  6  feet. 


720  feet. 


SURVEYOR'S   MEASURE. 


MILES. 

ACRES. 

ROODS. 

SQ.  CHAINS. 

PERCHES. 

SQ.  LINKS. 

1 

640 

2560 

6400.0 

102.400 

64.000.000 

1 

4 

100 

160 

100.000 

1 

25 

40 

25.000 

1.0 

16 

10.000 

1 

625 

1  square  mile  =  6400  square  chains  =  640  acres. 
1  mile  =  8  fur.  =  320  rods  =  1760  yards  =  5280  feet  =  63.360  inches. 
1  sq.  acre  =  160  sq.  rods  =  4840  sq.  yards  =  43560  sq.  feet. 
208.7103  feet  square,  or  69.5701  yards  square,  or  220  feet  x  198  feet 
1  acre. 


610 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


FRENCH    MEASURE   OF  WEIGHTS. 


NAME. 

No.  OF 
GRAINS. 

WT.  OF  WATER. 
QUALITY  AT 
MAX.  DENSITY. 

IN  AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 

Milligram 

1 

10 
100 
1000 

10000 
100000 
1000000 

Grains. 
.01543316 
.1543316 
1.543316 

15.43316 
Pounds  av. 
.02204737 
.2204737 
2.204737 

22.04737 
220.4737 
2204.737 

10  cu.  m.m.  .  .  . 

TV  cu.  centimetre. 
1  cu.  centimetre. 

10  cu.  cent  
1  decalitre  
1  litre   

Ounces. 
.0352758 

.352758 
3.52758 
35.2758 
Tonofmolbs. 
.00984258 
.0984258 
.984258 

Hectogram        .        

Kilogram 

10  litres  

Quintal                  

1  hectolitre  
1  cubic  metre  

Tonneau;  Millier  or  Tonne. 

The  gram  is  the  basis  of  French  weights,  and  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
centimetre  of  distilled  water  at  its  maximum  density,  at  sea  level,  in  latitude 
of  Paris  ;  barometer,  29.922  inches. 


AVOIRDUPOIS. 

1  dram 1.77168  grams. 

lounce 28.34704      " 

1  pound 453.55264      " 

1  hundred  weight  (100  Ibs.) 45355.264 

1  ton  (2000  Ibs) 907.10528  kilograms. 

1  ton  (2240) 1015.9579 


AVOIRDUPOIS. 


TON. 

CWT. 

POUNDS. 

OUNCES. 

DRAMS. 

1 

20 

2240 

35840 

573440 

0.05 

1 

112 

1792 

28672 

0.00044642 

0.0089285 

1 

16 

256 

0.00002790 

0.000558 

0.0625 

1 

16 

0.00000174 

0.0000348 

0.0016 

0.0625 

1 

THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


611 


TROY  WEIGHT. 

1  grain* 0. 064795  grains. 

1  pennyweight 1.555093 

1  ounce 31.10186       " 

1  pound 373.2223 

TROY. 


POUNDS. 

OUNCES. 

PWT. 

GRAINS. 

POUND  AVOIB. 

1 

12 

240 

5760 

0.822861 

0.083333 

1 

20 

480 

0.068571 

0.004166 

0.05000 

1 

24 

0.0034285 

0.0001736 

0.00208333 

0.0416666 

1 

0.00020571 

1.215275 

14.58333 

219.6666 

7000 

1 

1  Troy  pound  =    .822857  Avoirdupois  pound. 

1  Avoirdupois  pound  =  1.215278  Troy 


1  Ib.  Av. 

1  Ib.  Tr.  or  Ap. 

1  oz.  Tr.  or  Ap. 

1  oz.  Av. 

1  dr.  Ap. 

1  dr.  Av. 

1  pwt.  Tr. 

1  sc.  A  p. 

1  gr.  Tr.  or  Ap. 


=  7000  gr.  Tr.  =  1  Ib.  2  oz.  11  pwt.  16  gr.  Tr. 
=  5760 

=     480 


60 

27i| 
24 
20 
1 


=  13  oz.  2#f  dr.  Av. 
=1  oz.  1TW  dr.  Av. 
=  18  pwt.  5£  gr.  Tr. 
=  2TyF  dr.  Av. 
=1  pwt.  3^  gr.  Tr. 
=  Iff  dr.  Av. 
=  Iff  dr.  Av. 
=         dr.  Av. 


NOTE.  —  To  change  a  quantity  from  one  weight  to  its  equivalent  in 
another  weight,  reduce  the  given  quantity  to  Troy  grains,  and  then  find 
their  value  in  denominations  of  the  weight  required. 


APOTHECARIES    WEIGHT. 

1  grain 0.064795  grams. 

1  scruple 1.29591 

1  dram 3. 88773 

1  ounce 31.10186 

1  pound 373.2223 

*  Grain  (Lat.  granum,  a  seed),  the  smallest  measure  of  weight  in  use  ;  it 
is  obtained  from  wheat ;  it  is  taken  from  the  middle  ear  and  well  dried. 
5760  grains  equal  1  Troy  pound,  and  7000  grains  equal  1  Avoirdupois  pound. 


612 


THE    CHEMISTS'    MANUAL. 


EQUIVALENT   OF   METRIC    MEASURES   OF  CAPACITY    IN 
U.   S.   APOTHECARIES    MEASURE. 


LITRES. 

GAL. 

PINT. 

FLUID 
OUNCE. 

.FLUID 
DRAM. 

MINIMS. 

Hectolitre..  
Decalitre      .  .  . 

26 

2 

3 
5 

5 
2 

5 
1 

20 
20 

Litre         

2 

1 

6 

32 

Decilitre  

_ 

3 

3 

3 

Centilitre 

2 

42 

APOTHECARIES   FLUID    MEASURE. 


MINIMS. 

DRAMS. 

OUNCES. 

PINTS. 

GALLONS. 

61240 

1024 

128 

8 

1 

7680 

128 

16 

1 

480 

8 

1 

60 

1 

APOTHECARIES'.* 


POUNDS. 

OUNCES. 

DRAMS. 

SCRUPLES. 

GRAINS. 

1 

12 

96 

288 

5760 

0.08333 

1 

8 

24 

480 

0.01041666 

0.125 

1 

3 

60 

0.0034722 

0.0416666 

0.3333 

1 

20 

0.00017361 

0.020833 

0.16666 

0.05 

1 

DIAMOND  WEIGHT. 


CARAT.f 

GRAIN. 

PARTS. 

GRAINS  (TROT). 

1. 

4. 

64 

3.2 

0.25 

1. 

16 

•-.     0.8 

0.015625 

0.0625 

1 

0.05 

0.3125 

12.5 

20 

1. 

*   The  pound,  ounce,  and  grain  are  the  same  as  in  Troy  weight, 
f  1  carat  in  United  States  =  3.2  grs. ;  in  London,  3.17  grs. ;  in  Paris, 
3.18  grs. 


THE  CHEMISTS'  MANUAL. 


613 


GOLD   ASSAY  WEIGHT. 


POUND. 

OUNCE. 

CARAT.* 

GRAIN. 

QUAHTER.t 

1 

12 

288 

1152 

•4608 

1 

24 

96 

384 

1 

4 

16 

1 

4 

Perfectly  pure  gold  is  worth  $20.67183  per  ounce  Troy;  or  $18.84151  Avoir. 

"     silver     "        $  1.36166        "  "    ;  or  $  1.24110     " 

Standard  gold  "        $18.60465        "  «'     ;  or  $16.95736     " 

silver  "        $1.22549        "  "    ;  or  $  1.11698     " 

In  the  United  States  the  standard  for  coin  is  9  parts  by  weight  of  gold  or 
silver  to  1  part  of  alloy. 


$15  =  1  Ib.  Troy  ;   or  $18.23  =  1  Ib.  Avoirdupois. 
357.03  grains  pure  silver  =  $1 ;  23.22  grains  pure  gold  =  $1. 


TABLE 

SHOWING  DIFFERENCE  OF  TIME  AT  12  O'CLOCK  (noon)  AT  NEW 

YORK. 

(DICK'S  ENCYCLOPAEDIA.) 


NEW  YORK 12.00  M. 

Buffalo 11.40  A.M. 

Cincinnati 11.18    " 

CHICAGO 11.07    " 

ST.  Louis 10.55    " 

SAN  FRANCISCO 8.45    " 

New  Orleans 10.56    " 

WASHINGTON 11.48    " 

Charleston 11.36     " 

HAVANA..  .  11.25    " 


BOSTON 12.12  P.M. 

Quebec 12.12   " 

Portland 12.15    " 

LONDON 4.55   " 

PARIS 5.05  " 

ROME 5.45   " 

CONSTANTINOPLE 6.41   " 

VIENNA 6.00  " 

ST.  PETERSBURG 6.57   " 

PEKIN  (night) 12.40  A.M. 


*  The  carat  is  an  Abyssinian  weight. 

t  The  assay  quarter-grain  equals  1£  grains  Troy. 


614: 


THE  CHEMISTS'   MANUAL. 


8ft 


II 


5     S    SS 

3      P     "'i: 


S     g 


»  111 

S     o«» 


QQ     gQ 


TH'        » 


t^.«P«o     oo»noo 

' 


i  i  i  11 


:8 


INDEX. 


A. 

Acid,  myristic,  583. 

Aluminium,  detection,  113. 

nitric,  150,  583. 

discovered  by,  3. 

Acetic  acid,  581,  584. 
antidote  for,  593. 

nitrous,  583. 
oleic,  583. 

discovered  in,  3. 
melting-point,  4. 

detection,  153. 

oxalic,  151. 

metallic,  73. 

sp.  gr.,  231. 
Acid,  aceconitic,  585. 

palmitic,  583. 
pentathionic,  583. 

minerals,  242. 
oxides,  72. 

acrylic,  581. 
antimonic,  581. 

perchloric,  583. 
periodic,  583. 

salts,  194. 
spec,  gravity,  4. 

antimonous,  581. 
apocrenic,  581. 
arsenic,  581. 

permanganic,  583. 
phenic,  583. 
phosphoric,  150,  583. 

specific  heat,  7. 
Alunete,  242. 
Alunogen,  242. 

basic,  581. 
benzoic,  582. 
bismuthic,  582. 

picric,  583. 
pyrocitnc,  583. 
pyrogallic,  583. 

Amalgam,  32^  588. 
Ammonia,  antidote  for,  594. 
before  the  blow- 

boracic, 151. 

pyroligneous,  583. 

pipe,  198. 

boric,  582. 

pyrotartaric,  583. 

characteristic    re- 

brornic, 147,  582. 

racemic,  583. 

action,  136. 

butic,  582. 

saccharic,  583. 

deportment    with 

butyric,  582,  585. 

silicic,  152,  583. 

reagents.  133. 

camphoric,  582. 

stannic,  583. 

detection  of,  137. 

capric,  582. 
caproic,  582,  585. 

stearic,  583. 
succinic,  583. 

salts,  134. 
specific  gravity  of, 

caprylic  582. 
carballylic,  584. 
carbazotic,  582. 

sulphantimonic,  583. 
sulphocarbonic,  583. 
sulphosulphuric,  583. 

227. 
table  of,  135. 
Amphibole,  303. 

carbolic,  582. 
carbonic,  582. 
carminic,  582. 

sulphuric,  147,  583. 
,     sulphurous,  584. 
tannic,  531,  584. 

Analcite,  305. 
Analysis  of  fatty  oils,  178. 
of  man,  517. 

chloric,  582,  150. 

tartaric,  153,  584. 

of  sugars,  479. 

chlorous,  582. 

tetrathi  me,  584. 

qualitative,  138. 

chromic,  582,  152. 

trithronic,  584. 

Analytical   chem.,  table    of, 

citric,  582. 

uric,  584. 

154-169. 

"    detection  of,  152-3. 

valeric,  584. 

Andalusue,  305. 

diphosphoric,  582. 

Aconitin,  173,  174. 

Anglesite,  284. 

,     gallic,  582,  584. 
hippunc,  582. 
hydriodic,  582. 

antidote  for,  597. 
Actinolite,  303. 
Agricultural  products,  557. 

Anorthite,  304. 
Antimony,  assay  of,  515. 
atomic  weight,  i, 

hydrobromic,  147-582. 

Alabandite,  290. 

4?  549- 

hydrochloric,     147-149, 

Albite.  304. 

before  the  blow- 

582. 
hydrocobalticyanic,s82. 
hydroferricyanic,      147, 

Alcohol,  antidote  for,  594. 
sp.  gr.  of,  216-218. 
table  of,  219. 

pipe,  196,  200.  55, 
203. 
characteristic    re- 

582. 

Alizarin,  585. 

action,  55,  71. 

hydroferrocyanic,     i47 

Alkaloids,  new  reac.  for,  174. 

deportment    with 

582. 

scheme  for,  172. 

reagents,  50,  52, 

hydrofluoric,  582. 
hydrosulphocyanic,  582. 
hydrosulphuric,  582. 

detection  and  sep- 
aration of,  174. 
Alkinite,  248. 

158. 
discovery  by,  i. 
discovery  in,  i. 

hypobromous,  582. 
'  hypochlorous,  582. 
hyposulphuric,  582. 

Alloys  and  compositions,  585. 
and  solders,  586. 
assay  of,  503. 

film,  198. 
melting-point,  4. 
metallic,  51. 

hyposulphurous,  582. 
iodic,  583. 

Almandite,  290,  303. 
Aluminite,  242. 

minerals,  244. 
native,  244. 

kresyhc,  583. 
lactic,  583,  584. 
malic,  583,  584,  153. 

Aluminium,  atomic  weight  of, 
3»  4,  549- 
before  the  blow- 

oxides, 50. 
price  of,  556. 
specific  gravity,  4. 

meta-gallic,  583. 

pipe,  197. 

specific  neat,  7. 

meta-phosphoric,  583. 

characteristic  re- 

wine of,  antidote 

meta-silicic,  583. 

actions,  76. 

for,  597. 

meta-stannic,  583. 

deportment  with    Anhydrite,  250. 

meta-tartaric,  583. 

reag'nts,  72,  154.    Annabergite,  295. 

616 


INDEX. 


Apatite.  250,  297. 

Barometer,  boil.-points,  604. 

Borax,  325. 

Apophyllite,  305. 
Aqua    fortis,     antidote    for, 

heights,  604. 
Baryta  salts,  antidote  for,  595. 

Borickite,  297. 
Bornite,  263,  266. 

594- 

Baume,  sp.  gr.  heavier  than 

Boron,  atomic  weight,  i,  4. 

Aragonite,  250. 

water,  214. 

discovered  by,  i. 

Argentan,  587. 

sp.  gr.  lighter,  216. 

discovered  in,  i. 

Argentic  oxide,  13. 

Bean,  field,  559,  560. 

melting-point,  4. 

dioxide,  13. 

garden,  559,  560. 

specific  gravity,  4. 

Argentiferous  alloy,  587. 
Argentite,  321,  322. 

Bebeenn,  174. 
Beech  leaves  in  autumn.  559, 

specific  heat,  7. 
Bowmonite,  284. 

Argentous  oxide,  14. 
Arsenic,  antidote  for,  595. 

660. 
leaves  in  summer,  560. 

Brass,  composition  of,  587. 
Braunite,  290. 

atomic  weight  of,  i, 

nuts,  560. 

Brewers'  grains,  558. 

4,  549. 

Beer,  558. 

Brine,  460. 

before  the  blowpipe, 

Beet  seed,  560. 

Britannia  metal,  402,  587. 

197-200. 
characteristic    reac- 

sugar, 470. 
analysis  of,  472. 

Brochantite,  263. 
Bromine,  atomic  weight,   i, 

tions,  48,  71. 

Beets,  ash,  558. 

14,  549. 

deportment  with  re- 

molasses, 558. 

before   the   blow- 

agents, 43,  48. 

raw  sugar,  558. 

pipe,  196,  200. 

detection,  113. 

sugar,  558. 

discovered  by,  i. 

discovered  by,  i. 
discovered  in,  i. 
film,  198-200. 
melting-point,  4. 
metallic,  44. 
minerals,  216. 

sugar  heads,  558. 
Bells,  composition  of;  585. 
Benzol,  579. 
Berbenn,  174. 
Beryl,  303,  311. 
Biebente,  261. 

discovered  in,  i. 
specific  gravity,  4. 
specific  heat,  7. 
Bromyrite,  321. 
Bronze,  composition  of,  587. 
Broom,  559. 

native,  246. 

Bile,  532,  533. 

Brucin,  172,  174. 

oxides,  43. 

Pettenkofer's  test,  534. 

Brucite,  287. 

price  of,  556. 
specific,  gravity,  4. 
specific  heat,  7. 

Biotite,  304. 
Bismuth,  at.  weight,  i,  4,  549. 
before    the    blow- 

Buckwheat, 559,  560,  570. 
grits,  558. 
Bulrush,  559. 

Arsenopyrite,  273. 
Arseniosiderite,  273. 

pipe,  41,  196,  200, 
203. 

Burns,  remedy  for,  598. 
Butter,  460. 

Artiads,  2.  3,  4,  5,  6. 

characteristic  reac- 

Buttermilk, 460. 

Ash  of  filter-paper,  370. 

tions,  41. 

Assaying,  487. 

deportment  with  re- 

C. 

Atropin,  173,  174,  175. 

agents,  38,  162. 

Atacamite,  253. 

detection,  42,  70,  71. 

C?dmium,  at.  wt.,  i,  4,  549. 

Atlantic  ocean,  411. 

discovered  by,  i. 

before    the  blow- 

Atomic weights,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6. 

discovered  in,  4. 

pipe,  38,  197,  200. 

Atoms,  ii. 

film,  198.   ' 

characteristic    re- 

Augite,  303. 
Azotized  substances,  anal,  of, 

melting-point,  4. 
metallic,  39. 

action,  38,  71. 
deportment     with 

438. 

minerals,  248. 

reagents,  35,  162. 

Azurite,  263,  269. 

native,  248. 

detection,  42. 

oxides,  38. 

discovered  by,  2. 

B. 

price  of,  556. 

discovered  in,  2. 

salts,  39,  194. 

film,  198. 

Babbitt  metal,  402,  587. 
Ball  soda,  579. 

specific  gravity,  4. 
specific  neat,  4. 

melting-point,  4. 
metallic,  36,  38. 

Barilla,  579. 
Barium,  atomic  weight,  2,  4, 

Bismuthinite,  248,  249. 
Bitter-almonds,  antidote  for, 

price  of,  556. 
oxides,  35. 

before  the  blowpipe. 

Blackberries,  573. 

saltSj  2,  36,  194. 
specific  gravity,  4. 

197. 

Bleaching  powders,  579. 

specific  heat,  7. 

characteristic     reac- 
tions, 118. 

Blood,  analysis  of,  447,  520. 
arterial,  521. 

Caesium,  at.  weight,  i,  4,  549. 
deportment  with  re- 

deportment with  re- 

corpuscles, 523. 

agents,  i. 

agents,  114,  154. 
detection,  127. 

crystals,  524. 
detection  of,  523. 

discovered  by,  i. 
discovered  in,  i. 

discovery  by,  2. 
discovery  in,  2. 
melting-point,  4. 

diameter,  522. 
globules,  522. 
plasma,  523. 

melting-point,  i. 
specific  gravity,  6. 
specific  heat,  7. 

oxides,  114. 

venous,  521. 

Caffein,  174,  579. 

price  of,  556. 

Blowpipe  scheme,  200. 

Calamine,  305,  579. 

salts,  116. 

tests,  196,  197. 

Calaverite,  270. 

specific  gravity,  4. 

Blue  vitriol,  antidote  for,  596. 

Calcite,  250,  251. 

specific  heat,  7. 

Boiling-points  corres.  to  alti- 

Calcium, atomic  weight,  2,  4, 

Bark,  analyses  of  ash,  561, 

tudes  of  barom- 

549- 

566. 

eter,  604. 

before  the  blowpipe, 

Barley,  559,  56o. 
analysis  of  ash,  570. 

of  dif.  sol.,  603. 
Bones,  537,  538. 

197. 
characteristic   reac- 

dust, 558. 

Boracic,  151. 

tion,  124. 

flour,  558. 
heading  out,  555. 

Boracite,  287. 
Borates,  before  the  blowpipe, 

deportment  with  re- 
agents, 121,  154. 

in  flower,  555. 

197. 

detection,  127. 

INDEX. 


617 


Calcium  discovered  by,  2. 

Chlorine,  specific  gravity,  4. 

Cobalt,  minerals  of,  261. 

discovered  in,  2. 

specific  heat,  7. 

oxides  of,  96. 

melting-point,  4. 

Chloroform,  579. 

price  of,  556. 

metallic,  122. 

antidote  for,  594. 

salts,  99,  194. 

minerals,  250. 
oxides,  121. 

Chocolate,  anal,  of  ash,  569. 
Chromic  acid,  152. 

specific  gravity,  4. 
specific  heat,  7. 

price  of,  556. 
salts,  122. 

iron  analyses  of,  389. 
iron  analysis,  388. 

Cobaltite,  261,  262. 
Codeia,  579. 

specific  gravity,  4. 

Chromite,  260,  273. 

Codein,  174,  175. 

specific  heat,  7. 

Chromium,  at.  wt.,  3,  4,  549. 

Cod-liver  oil,  176. 

Calculations,  353. 

before  the  blow- 

Coffee, analyses  of  ash,  569. 

Callainite,  297. 

pipe,  196,  83. 

CoinSj  standard,  614. 

Calomel,  294,  579. 

characteristic  re- 

Colchicin, 172,  175. 

Camphor,  579. 

actions,  83. 

Columbite,  273. 

Cane-sugar,  466,  471,  476. 

deportment  with 

Columbium,  atomic  weight, 

rotatory   power, 

476. 

reag'nts,  76,  158. 
detection  of,  113. 

2,  4,  549. 
deportment  with 

Carbon,  at.  weight,  3,  4,  549. 
discovered  by,  3. 

discovered  by,  3. 
discovered  in,  3. 

reagents,  158. 
discovered  by,  2. 

minerals  of,  256. 

metallic,  80. 

discovered  in,  2. 

specific  gravity,  4. 
specific  heat,  7. 

minerals,  260. 
oxides  of,  76. 

melting-point,  4. 
price  of,  556. 

Carbonates  before  the  blow- 

price of,  556. 

specif,  gravity,  4. 

pipe,  197. 

saks,  81,  194. 

specific  heat,  4. 

Carbonic  acid,  detection  of, 
200. 

specif,  gravity,  4. 
Chrondrodite,  304. 

Compounds,  reduc.  of,  363. 
specific  heats  of, 

Carrot-seed,  560. 
Carrots,  558. 

Chrysoberyl,  242. 
Chrysocolla,  305. 

8,  9,  10. 
various   sp.  gr. 

Casamajor's  scheme,  196. 
Cassiterite,  330,  331. 
Cast-iron,  analyses  of,  387. 

Chrysolite,  303. 
Church-bells,  comp.  of,  587. 
Chyle,  535,  536. 

of,  235. 
Condensed  milk,  461. 
Conin,  173,  174,  175. 

analysis,  384. 
Castor-oil,  176,  178. 
Celestite,  328. 

Cmchoma,  579. 
Cinnabar,  294,  579. 
Citric  acid,  152. 

Copiapite,  273. 
Copper,  analysis  of,  394. 
antidote  for,  596. 

Cellulin,  579. 
Cellulose,  579. 
Centigrade  into  Fahren.,  600. 
Cerargyrite,  321,  325. 
Cereals,  green,  light,  557. 
heavy,  557. 
Cerium,  atomic  weight,  2,  4. 
before  the  blowpipe, 

City  waters,  purity  of,  421. 
Clausthalite,  284. 
Clay,  analyses  of,  424. 
analysis,  423. 
Clays,  chemical,  318. 
ordinary,  317. 
Clock-bells,  comp.  of,  587. 
Clover,  red,  557. 

atomic  weight,  i,  4. 
before  the  blowpipe, 
196. 
characteristic    reac- 
tion, 35,  71-  . 
deportment  with  re- 
agents, 30,  162. 
detection,  42. 

196. 

Swedish,  557. 

melting-point,  4. 

deportment  with  re- 

white, 557. 

metallic,  32 

agents,  154. 

Clover-seed,  560. 

minerals  of,  263. 

discovered  by,  2. 

Coal,  336. 

native,  263,  264. 

discovered  in,  2. 

analyses  of,  340,  422. 

ore  analysis,393. 

melting-point,  4. 
price  of,  556. 

analysis,  421. 
analysis  of  ash,  341. 

oxides,  31. 
price  of,  549,  556. 

specific  gravity,  4. 

and  wood,  composition 

pyrites,  analyses  of, 

Cerrusite,  284,  285. 

of,  338- 

394- 

Chabazite,  306. 

anthracite,  340. 

salts.  32,  194. 

Chaff,  559- 
analysis  of  ash,  564. 

area,  339. 
bituminous,  340. 

specific  gravity,  4. 
specific  heat,  7. 

Chalcanthite,  263. 

Brier  Hill,  336. 

Copperas,  579. 

Chalcocite,  263,  265. 

brown,  340. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  579- 

Chalcopyrite,  263,  267. 

cannel,  341. 

antidote  tor,  596. 

Chalk,  579. 

districts,  341. 

Corundum,  242. 

„.           '  rf/ag 

Cheese,  460. 

evap.  power  of,  347. 

Cotton-seed  cake,  559. 

Chemical  calculations,  353. 

measure,  336. 

Cream,  460. 

Cherries,  573. 

non-caking,  340. 

of  tartar,  579. 

Cherry,  entire  fruit,  560. 

products,  343,  347. 

Creasote,  579. 

Chiccory,  558. 

distillation  of, 

Crocoite,  284. 

Chinese   silver,  composition 

343- 

Croton  water,  420. 

of,  587. 
Chloral,  579. 
Chloraniline,  579. 

series,  336. 
Cobalt,  at.  wt.  of,  3,  4,  549. 
before  the  blowpipe. 

Cryolite,  242,  243. 
Cryptolite,  297. 
Cuprite,  263.  264. 

Chlorastrolite,  305. 

196,  101. 

Currants,  analysis  of,  572. 

Chloric  acid,  150. 

characteristic      reac- 

Cyanite, 305. 

Chlorimetry,  427. 

tions,  101. 

Chlorinated  compounds,  443. 
Chlorine,  at.  weight,  i,  549. 
before    the    blow- 

deportment with  re- 
agents, 96,  162. 
detection,  113. 

D. 

Datolite,  305. 

pipe,  196,  200. 

discovered  by,  3. 

Daturin,  antidote  for,  597. 

detection  of,  200. 
discovered  by,  i. 

discovered  in,  3. 
melting-point,  4. 

Dead  Sea,  411. 
Defunct  elements,  554. 

discovered  in,  i. 

metallic,  98. 

Delphin,  172. 

618 


INDEX. 


Deportment  of  metals  with 
reagents,  13. 
of  salts,  with  re- 

Essential oils,  sp.  gr.  of,  182. 
Ether,  antidote  for,  594. 
specific  gravity  of,  226. 

Gastric  juice,  530,  531. 
German    silver,  composition 
of,  587. 

agents,  13. 

Eucalin,  463,  476. 

Glass,  analyses  of,  426. 

Determination  of  sp.  gr.,  207. 
Dextrin,  579. 

Euclase,  305, 
seed,  569. 

analysis,  425. 
Glauber  salts,  579. 

Dextrose,  462,  579. 

Excrement,  542. 

Glauberite,  325,  326. 

Diamonds,  256,  257. 

Expansion  of  solids,  602. 

Glucinum,  atomic  weight,  2, 

wt.  ot  the  largest, 

5,  549- 

257. 

p_ 

deportment    with 

Diaspore,  242. 
Didymium,  atomic  weight,  2, 

Fahrenheit  into  Cenitgrade, 

reagents,  154. 
detection,  559. 

4,  549. 

599- 

discovered  by,  2. 

deportment     with 

Fat  oils,  180. 

discovered  in,  2. 

reagents,  154. 

reactions  of,  176. 

equiv.  of  atoms,  2. 

discovered  by,  2. 

Fatty  oil,  scheme  for,  179. 

melting-point,  5. 

discovered  in,  2. 
price  of,  556. 

Feldspar,  analyses  ot,  399. 
analysis,  398. 

specific  gravity,  5. 
specific  heat,  7. 

specific  gravity,  4. 
Digitalin,  172. 

Fern,  559. 
Fertilizers,  analysis,  403. 

Glycerine,  232,  578,  579. 
as  a  solvent,  578. 

Dilatation  of  solids,  602. 

Fibrolite,  305. 

Glycol,  584. 

Dioptase,  305. 

Filter-paper  ash,  370. 

Gold  amalgam,  270. 

Distearin,  579. 
Dolomite,  250,  255. 

Fineness  of  gold,  513. 
ot  silver,  514. 

at.  weight,  i,  5,  549. 
before    the    blowpipe, 

analyses  of,  400. 

Fir  leaves,  559. 

197,  200. 

analysis.  399. 

autumn,  560. 

characteristic  reaction, 

Drj-ing  oils,  180. 
Dulcite,  465. 

Fire-damp,  579. 
Flax,  entire  plant,  559. 

69,  71. 
deportment     with    re- 

fibre, 559. 

agents,  65,  158. 

rotted  stems,  559. 

detection,  69. 

f 

seed,  560. 

discovered  by,  i. 

Earthy  cobalt,  261. 

seed  hulls,  559. 

discovered  in,  i. 

Elayl,  579. 

straw,  559. 

fineness  of,  513. 

Electricity,  591. 
Elements,  atomic  weight  of, 

Flour,  barley,  558. 
rye,  558. 

melting-point,  5. 
metallic,  66. 

1,2,3,4,5,6,549. 
by  Mendelejefi,547. 

wheat,  fine,  558. 
Fluorine,  at.  weight,  5,  549. 

minerals  of.  270. 
native,  270,  271. 

defunct,  554. 

before    the     blow- 

oxides, 65. 

discovered  by,  1-3. 

pipe,  196. 

parting,  512. 

discovered  in,  1-3. 

characteristic  reac- 

price of,  556. 

dyads,  2. 

tion,  8. 

salts,  66. 

electro  -  chem.  or- 

discovered by,  7. 

specific  gravity,  5. 

der,  591. 

discovered  in,  i. 

specific  neat,  7. 

equiv.  of  atoms,  i, 

specific  gravity,  5. 

Gold  and  silver,  506. 

2>  3- 

Fluorite,  250. 

assay,  494. 

hexads,  3. 

Fluxes  for  soldering,  588. 

crucible  assay, 

monads,  i,  2. 

Fodder,  green,  analyses    of 

494- 

pentads,  2. 

ash,  562,  568. 

scorification  as- 

price of.  556. 

Franklinite,  273,  276. 

say,  499. 

sp.gr.  of,  4,  5,  6. 

Freezing  mixtures,  602. 

Gold  coin  and  bullion,  511. 

specific  heat  of,  7. 

French  nut,  176. 

Golthite,  273. 

^     symbols  of,  i,  2,  3. 

Fruit  essences,  575. 

Gongs,  composition  of,  587. 

/  \     table  of,  549. 
table  of,  I.  i,  2,  3. 

sugar,  579. 
Fruits,  572,  573,  574,  577,  578. 

Gooseberries,  anal,  of,  572, 
Goslante,  332. 

\        table  of,  11,  4,  5,  6. 

acid  in,  575. 

Grains  and!  seeds  of  agricul- 

tetrads, 3. 

composition    of,    572, 

tural  plants,  560,  564,  565, 

triads,*!. 

573,  574. 

568,  569. 

volatile,  198. 
Embolite,  321. 

sugar  in,  575. 
Fruits  and  seeds  of  trees,  560, 

Grams  in  U.  S.  gallon,  409. 
Grape  must,  559. 

Emetin,  175. 

565- 

seed,  560. 

Epidote,  304. 

plants,  565. 

skins,  558. 

Epsom  salts,  590. 

Fuels,  heating  power  of,  347. 

sugar,  580. 

Epsomite,  287. 
Erbium,  atomic  weight,  2,  4. 
deportment  with  re- 

Fusel oil,  579. 
G. 

Grapes,  573- 
Graphite,  259. 
Grass,  down,  559. 

agents,  154. 

rye,  in  flower,  557. 

discovered  by,  2. 
discovered  in,  2. 
melting-point,  4. 
price  of,  556. 

Galactose  rotatory  power,476. 
Galena,  special  method  assay, 

Galenite,  284. 

sweet,  557. 
young,  557. 
Green  fodder,  analysis  of  ash, 
560,  568. 

specific  gravity,  4. 
Erythrite,  261,  464. 
Esparsette,  557. 

Gallipoli  oil,  176. 
Gallium  discovered  by,  553. 
discovered  in,  593. 

vitriol,  579. 
Grossularite,  303. 
Group  I,    13-142. 

seed,  560. 
Essences,  artificial,  579. 

melting-point,  5. 
specific  gravity,  5. 

II,    42-143. 
Ill,    72-144. 

Essential  oils,  182. 

Garnet,  303,  312. 

IV,  114-145. 

optical  prop,  of,  182. 

Gases,  sp.  gr.  of,  209. 

V,  X28-I45. 

INDEX. 


619 


Gummite,  297. 

Indium,  price  of,  556. 

L. 

Gun-cotton,  580. 

salts  of,  91,  94. 

Gunpowder,  analyses  of,  425. 

specific  gravity,  5. 

Labradorite,  304. 

analysis,  424. 
Gypsum,  250. 

rific  neat,  7. 
Insoluble  substances,  quali- 

Lactose, 462,  476,  580. 
Lsevulose,  476,  580. 
Lanthanium,  atomic  weight, 

tative  scheme  for,  146. 

o    t;    CAQ 

H. 

Haematein,  580. 

Intestinal  juice,  532. 
Inverted  sugar,  462. 

*j  o>  M-y* 
deportment  with 
reagents,  158. 

Halite,  325,  326. 
Hardness  of  substances,  350. 

rotatory  power  of, 
476. 

discovered  by,  2. 
discovered  in,  2. 

scale  of,  350. 

Iodine,  antidote  for,  594,  596. 

melting-point,  5. 

Harmotome,  306. 
Hathorn  Spring,  411. 
Hausmanite,  290. 
Hauynite,  304. 

atomic  weight,  i,  549. 
before  the  blowpipe, 
196,  200. 
discovered  by,  i. 

minerals  of,  286. 
spec,  gravity,  5. 
Lapis  lazuli,  304,  314. 
Lard  oil,  176. 

Hay,  analysis  of  ash,  562,  566, 

discovered  in,  i. 

Lathe  bushes,  comp.  of,  587. 

567- 

melting-point,  5. 

Laumonite,  305. 

dead  ripe,  557. 

specific  heat,  7. 

Laurel    water,  antidote    for, 

meadow,  557. 
timothy,  557. 

specific  gravity,  5. 
lodyrite,  321. 

593- 
Lead,  antidote  for,  596. 

Heath,  559. 

lolite,  304. 

assays,  514. 

Hedenbergite,  303. 
Hellebore,  antidote  for,  597. 

Iridosmine,  272. 
Iron,  analyses  of,  383. 

at.  weight,  i,  4,  549. 
before    the    blowpipe, 

Hematite,  273,  277. 

antidote  for,  596. 

196,  200,  201,  203. 

analysis  of,  383. 
Hemp,  entire  plant,  559. 

at.  weight,  3,  5,  549. 
before    the    blowpipe, 

characteristic  react'ns, 

22. 

Hemp-seed,  560. 
oil,  176,  178. 

93,  196,  200. 
cast,  analyses  of,  386. 

deportment  in  the  re- 
agents, 17,  162. 

Henlandite,  306. 
Hop,  entire  plant,  559. 

cast,  analysis,  384. 
characteristic  reactions, 

detections  of,  27,  42,  71. 
film,  198. 

Hops,  559. 

Ir3- 

limit  of  reaction,  22. 

Hornblende,  303. 
Horsechestnut,  560. 

chromic,  analysis,  388. 
deportment    with     re- 

melting-point, 5,  17. 
metallic,  19. 

autumn,  560. 

agents,  87,  162. 

minerals  of,  284. 

spring,  560. 

detection,  113. 

native,  284. 

green  husk,  560. 

discovered  by,  3.        ' 

oxides,  18. 

House  bells,  composition  of, 

discovered  in,  3. 

pig,  analyses  of,  392. 

587. 

film,  198. 

pig,  analysis,  390. 

Hydrobr.omine,  147. 
Hydrocarbons  from  essential 
oils,  183. 

malleable,  anal,  of,  386. 
melting-point  of,  5. 
metallic,  90. 

price  of,  556. 
salts,  18,  194. 
specific  gravity,  5,  17. 

optical    prop. 

minerals  of,  273. 

specific  neat,  7,  17. 

of,  183. 

native,  273,  274. 

Leaves   and    stems   of  root 

sp.  gr.  of,  183. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  147,  149. 
antidote  for, 

ore,  appendix  to,  381. 
ore,  quant,  anal.,  373. 
ore,  assay  of,  489. 

crops,  analysis  of 
ash,  563. 
of  trees,  560,  565. 

593- 
sp.  grav.  of, 
219. 
Hydrocyanic    acid,    antidote 

ore,  assays  of,  493. 
oxides  of,  8.    Z  7 
pig,  analyses  of,  384. 
price  of,  556. 

Lentils,  560. 
Lepidolite,  286,  304. 
Leucine,  580. 
Leucite,  304. 

for,  593. 
Hydroferricyanic,  147. 
Hydroferrocyanic,  147. 
Hydrogen,  at.  weight,  i,  549. 

salts,  194. 
specific  gravitv  of,  5. 
specific  heat  of,  7. 
volumetric    determina- 

Leucopyrite, 273. 
Libethenite,  263. 
Lignite,  340. 
Lime,   before   the  blowpipe, 

discovered  by,  i. 

tion  of,  379, 

197. 

discovered  in,  i. 
specific  gravity  ,5. 

Iridium,  atomic  weight^  549. 
deportment  with  re- 

deportment of,  154. 
Limonite,  273,  279. 

specific  heat,  7. 

agents,  158. 

Linnseite,  261. 

Hydrometer,  Baume,  sp.  gr., 

discovered  by  3-5. 

Linseed  cake,  559. 

214,  215. 

discovered  in,  3-5. 

oil,  176,  178,  179. 

Hydrophobia,    antidote    for, 

minerals  of,  272. 

Liquids,  official  spec,  gravity, 

Hydrozincite,  332. 

native,  272. 
price  of,  556. 
specific  gravity,  5. 

232. 
Liroconite,  263. 
Litharge,  antidote  for,  596. 

Lithia  mica,  286. 

I. 

Lithium,  at.  weight,  i,  549. 

Ilmenite,  analyses  of,  397. 

t 

deportment  with  re- 

analysis, 397. 

Javelle  water,  580. 

agents,  154. 

India  nut  oil,  176. 

discovered  by,  5. 

Indium,  atomic  weight  of,  3, 

discovered  in,  5. 

5»  549- 

. 

melting-point,  5. 

deportment  with  re- 

Kalinite, 242. 

price  of,  556.  _ 

agents,  5. 

Kaolin,  316. 

specific  gravity,  5. 

discovered  by,  3. 

Kermesite,  244. 

specific  heat,  5. 

discovered  in,  3. 

King's  yellow,  ant.  for,  595. 

Litter,  559. 

melting-point,  5. 

Kreasote,  580. 

analysis  of  ash,  564. 

620 


INDEX. 


Lucerne,  557. 

Measures,  French  and  Amer- 

Molybdenum, atomic  weight, 

Lupines,  560. 
Lymph,  536. 

ican,  607. 
Meerschaum,  580. 

before  the  blow- 

Melanterite, 273. 

pipe,  196. 

M'1-  ~ 

Melezitose,  463. 

deportment  with 

.. 

Machinery  bearings,  compo- 
sition of,  587. 
Mad  dog  bite,  ant.  for,  594. 
Madia  oil,  178. 

Melitose,  463,  476. 
rotat.  power,  476. 
Melting-points,  tab.  of,  4,  5,  6. 
Menaccanite,  273. 
Mercury,  antidote  for,  596. 

reagents.  166. 
discovered  by,  3. 
discovered  in,  3. 
melting-point,  5. 
spec,  gravity,  5. 

seed,  560. 

atomic  weight,  i,  5, 

Money  standard,  614. 

Magnesite,  287. 
Magnetic  iron  ore,  383. 

before    the    blow- 

Morphia, 580. 
Morphin,  173,  174. 

Magnetite,  273,  275. 

pipe,  26,  30,  197, 

Mucus,  524. 

Magnesium,  atomic   weight, 
before  the  blow- 

200. 

characteristic  reac- 
tions, 26,  30. 

Mulberries,  573. 
Mulberry,  560. 
price  of,  556. 

pipe,  197. 
characteristic  re- 

deportmen. with  re- 
agents, 22,28,158. 

Muntz  metal,  comp.  of,  587. 
Muriatic  acid,  antidote   for, 

actions,  127. 

detection  of,  27,  42. 

593. 

deportment  with 

discovered  by,  i. 

Muscovite,  394. 

reagents,    124, 

discovered  in,  i. 

Mustard  seed,  560. 

162. 

film,  198. 

Mycose,  463. 

detection,  127. 

melting-point,  5. 

rotatory  power,  476. 

discovered  by,  2. 
discovered  in,  2. 

metallic,  23,  25. 
minerals  of,  294. 

N. 

melting-point,  5. 

native,  294. 

minerals,  287. 

oxides,  22. 

Nagyagite,  270. 

oxides,  124. 

price  of,  556. 

Naphthalin,  580. 

price  of,  556. 

salts,  23. 

Narcotin,  172,  174,  580. 

salts,  125. 

specific  gravity,  5. 

antidote  for,  597. 

spec,  gravity,  5. 
spec,  heat,  7. 

Metal  that  expands  on  cool- 
ing) 585- 

Native  metal  and  alloys,  as- 
say of,  513. 

Maize,  559,  560,  570. 
cobs,  659. 

analysis  of,  402. 
Metallic  oxides,  influence  of 

Natrolite,  305. 
analyses  of,  398. 

meal,  558. 

fixed  organic 

analysis,  397. 

Mai,  153. 
Malachite,  263-268. 

substances  on 
precip.,  193. 

Natron,  325. 
Neat's-foot  oil,  176. 

Malacolite,  302. 
Malleable  iron,  386- 

precip.  of,  193. 
Metals,  deportment  of,  with 

Nephelite,  304. 
Nessler's  solution,  417. 

Malt,  558. 

reagents,  13. 

Neurine,  585. 

cobs,  558. 
sprouts,  558. 
Malt-sugar,  476,  580. 

price  of,  ^56. 
Metalthal  expands  on   cool- 
ing, analysis  of,  402. 

Niccolite,  295.  296,  304. 
analyses  of,  393. 
Nickel,  atomic  weight  of,  3,  5, 

rotatory    power, 

Meteorites,  273. 

549- 

476. 

Metric  system,  605. 

before  the  blowpipe, 

Man,  analysis  of,  519. 

Milk,  analyses  of,  459. 

105,  196,  200. 

Manganese,  at.  wt.,  3,  5,  549. 
before  the  blow- 

analysis, 457. 
article,  526. 

characteristic      reac- 
tion, 106. 

pipe,  112,  196, 

ass,  459- 

deportment  with  re- 

20. 

camel,  459. 

agents,  102,  162. 

characteristic  re- 

canine, 459. 

detection,  113. 

actions,  112. 

condensed,  461. 

discovered  by,  3. 

deportment  with 

col.  woman,  459,  527. 

discovered  in,  3. 

reagents,    106, 

colostrum,  527. 

metallic,  103. 

detection,  113. 

cow,  459,  460. 
ewe,  459. 

minerals  017295. 
ore,  analyses  of,  392. 

detenn.  of,  379. 
discovered  by,  3. 

goat,  459. 
hippopotamus,  459. 

ore,  analysis,  393. 
oxides,  102. 

discovered  in,  3. 

mare,  459. 

price  of,  556. 

melting-point,  5. 

sow,  459. 

salts,  103,  194. 

metallic,  108. 

white  woman,  459,  527. 

specific  gravity  of,  5. 

minerals  of,  290. 

Milk-sugar,  rotatory  power, 

specific  heat  of,  7. 

ore,  anal,  of,  395. 
oxides  of,  106. 
price  of,  556. 
salts,  109,  194. 

Millerite,  295. 
Miller's  method,  415. 
Millet,  analysis  of  ash,  570. 

Nicotin,  173. 
antidote  for,  597. 
Nitrates  before  the  blowpipe, 
197. 

spec,  gravity,  5. 

Hungarian,  green,  557. 

Nitre,  302,  580. 

Manganite,  290,  292. 

husked,  560. 

Nitric  acid,  150. 

Mannite,  464. 
Manufactured    product    and 
refuse,  563. 
Marble,  analysis  of,  399. 
Marcasite,  273. 

meal.  558. 
with  husk,  560. 
Mineralogy,  239.  * 
Minretite,  284. 
Mirabilite,  325. 

antidote  for,  397. 
detection  of,  200. 
sp.  gr.  of,  220. 
Nitrogen,  atomic  weight,  i. 
discovered  by,  i. 

Marine  acid,  antidote  for,  593. 

Molasses,  analysis  of,  469. 

discovered  in,  i. 

Marsh  gas,  580,  584. 
Matches,  antidote  for,  597. 

slump,  558. 
Molecules,  n. 

specific  gravity,  5. 
specific  heat,  7. 

INDEX. 


621 


Nitroglycerin,  580. 
Non-drying  oils,  180. 
Nux  vomica,  580. 

Oxygen,  atomic  weight,  2,  5, 
available,  589. 

Piperin,  175. 
Plants  textile,  564. 
Platinum,  556. 

antidote  for,  598. 

discovered  by,  2. 

assay,  515. 

discovered  in,  2. 

at.  wt.,  3,  5,  549. 

specific  gravity,  5. 

bef.  the  blowpipe, 

• 

specific  heat,  5. 

197. 

Oak  leaves  in  autumn,  559. 

characteristic  reac- 

autumn, 560. 

tions,  64,  71. 

summer,  560. 

. 

deport,     with    re- 

Oats, 559,  560,  570. 
heading  out,  557. 

Palladium,  270. 
at.  wt.  3,  5,  549. 

agents,  62,  158. 
detection,  70. 

in  flower,  557. 

deportment  with 

discovered  by,  3. 

Official  liquids,  spec,  gravity 

reagents,  166. 

discovered  in,  3. 

of,  232. 

discovered  by,  3. 

melting-point,  5. 

Oil,  castor,  176. 

discovered  in,  3. 

metallic,  63. 

cod-liver,  176. 

melting-point,  5. 

minerals,  300. 

fresh  nut,  176. 

price  of,  556. 

native,  300. 

Galhpoli,  176. 
hemp-seed,  176. 

spec,  gravity,  5. 
specific  heat,  7. 

oxides,  62. 
price  of,  556. 

linseed,  176. 
neat's-foot,  176. 

Palmitin,  580. 
Pancreatic  juice,  531. 

salts  63. 
specific  gravity,  5. 

of  almonds,  178. 

Paraffin,  580. 

specific  heat,  7. 

of  French  (nut),  176. 

Pea,  green,  in  flower,  557. 

Plum,  entire  Iruit,  560. 

of  lead,  176. 

Peaches,  $74. 

Plums,  573. 

of  olives,  176,  178. 

Pear,  entire  fruit,  560. 

Poisons  and  their  antidotes, 

of  rue,  585. 

Pearl  ash,  580. 

590. 

of  vitriol,  antidote   for, 

Pears,  574. 

Polybasite,  321. 

pale  rape-seed,  176. 
poppy,  176. 

Peas,  559,  560. 
Peat,  347. 
Pectofite,  305. 

cavity,  348. 
distill,  of,  349. 
strata,  348. 

sesame,  176. 

Peperin,  175. 

poppy»  559. 

seal,  176. 

Perspiration,  525. 

cake,  559. 

sperm,  176. 

Petalite,  303. 

oil,  176,  178. 

train,  179. 

Petroleum,  348. 

seed,  560. 

Oils  (drying),  180. 
essential,  182. 

cavity,  348. 
distillation  of,  349. 

Porpezite,  270. 
Potable   water,   analysis  of, 

hydrocarbons  of, 

strata,  348. 

412. 

183- 

Pettenkoffer's  test,  534. 

Potash,  antidote  for,  590. 

optical  prop. 

Petzite,  270. 

Potassa  before  the  blowpipe, 

of,  183.      I  Pewter,  ahalvsis  of.  402. 

197. 

sp.  grav.  of, 
182. 

composition  of,  587. 
Pharmacolite,  250. 

Potassic  hydrate,  sp.  gr.,  230. 
Potassium,  at.  weight,  i,  549. 

optical  properties 

Pharmacopceial  prep.,  185. 

before  the  blow- 

of, 182. 

"     tests  of, 

pipe,  197. 

sp.  grav.  of,  182. 

185. 

characteristic  re- 

(fat), 180 

Pharmacosiderite,  273. 

action,  130. 

fat  of,  197. 
name  ot  plant,  180. 

Phenacite,  303. 
Phosphates  before  the  blow- 

deport, with  re- 
agents, 128,  154. 

(non-drying),  180. 
solidifying  point,  180. 
specific  gravity  of,  180. 
Olefiant  gas,  580. 

pipe,  197. 
Phosphorgummite,  297. 
Phosphoric  acid,  150. 
antidote    for, 

detection,  137. 
discovered  by,  i. 
discovered  in,  i. 
melting-point,  5. 

Olevenite,  263. 

594- 

minerals,  301. 

Oligoclase,  304,  315. 
Olive  oil,  176,  178. 

determination 
of,  378. 

oxides,  128. 
price  of,  556. 

Opal,  302,  309. 

sp.  gr.  of,  223. 

salts,  129-154. 

Opium,  antidote  for,  597. 
Oreide,  composition  ot,  587. 

Phosphorus,  ant.  for,  597. 
at.  weight,  i,  5. 

spec,  gravity,  5. 
specific  heat,  7. 

Organic  analysis,  431. 
Orpiment,  246,  247. 

discovered  by,  i. 
discovered  in,  i. 

Potatoes,  559. 
analyses  of,  571. 

Orthoclase,  304,  31?. 
analysis,  398. 

melt-point,  5. 
minerals  of,  297. 

fibre,  557. 
juice,  557- 

Osmium,  at.  wt.  of,  3,  5,  549. 
deportment  with  re- 
agents, 166. 

specific  heat,  '5. 
Phrenite,  305. 

skins,  557. 
slump,  557.  > 
Powders,    determination    of 

detection,  166. 

Picolin,  585. 

sp.  gr.,  207. 

discovered  by,  3. 
discovered  in,  3. 

Picrotoxm,  172. 
Pig  iron,  analyses  of,  386. 

Printing  characters,  587. 
anal,  of,  402. 

melting-point,  5. 
price  of,  556. 
specific  gravity,  5. 
Otaheite  cane,  466. 

analysis,  384. 
Pig  lead,  analyses  of,  392. 
analysis,  390. 
Pine,  red,  560. 

Prochlorite,  306. 
Proustite,  321. 

Prussian  blue,  580. 

Ouvarovite,  303. 

red  autumn,  560. 

Prussic  acid,  antidote  for,  593. 

Oxalic  acid,  151. 

red  leaves,  559. 

Pseudomalachite,  297. 

antidote  for,  593. 

white,  560. 

Psilomelane,  290. 

Oxide,  composition  of,  585. 

Finite,  465. 

Purple  of  cassius,  580. 

622 


INDEX. 


3us,  539,  540. 

Rubidium,  price  of,  556. 

Scheme  for  anal,  of  orthoclase, 

Pyrargyrite,  321,  323. 
3yrite,  273,  280. 

specific  gravity,  5. 
specific  heat,  5. 

398. 
for  anal,  of  pyrolusite, 

3yrolusite,  290,  291- 
analyses  of,  396. 

Rush,  559. 
scouring,  559. 

for  anal,  of  silver  coin, 

analysis  of,  395. 
Dyromorphite,  284,  297,  299. 

Pyrrliotite,  273. 

Ruta-bagas,  558. 
Ruthenium,  at.  wt.,  3,  5,  549. 
deportment  with 
reagents,  154. 

402. 
for  anal,  of  slag,  373. 
for  anal,  of  type  metal, 
401. 

3yroxene,  302. 
Pyroxylin,  580. 

discovered  in,  3. 
discovered  bf  ,  3. 

for  anal,  of  urine,  450. 
for  anal,  of  white  lead, 

melting-point,  5. 

400. 

Q. 

price  of,  556. 

for  anal,  of  zinc  ore, 

spec,  gravity,  5. 

394. 

Qualitative  analysis,  13. 
for  insol.  sub. 

specific  heat,  7. 
Rye,  560. 

for    qualitative   anal., 
138,  170. 

146. 

analysis  of  ash,  570. 

for  blowpipe  analysis, 

scheme  of,  138, 

I7O. 

flour,  558. 
summer,  559. 

200. 

for  detection  for  alka- 

deter, of  substances 

winter,  559. 

loids,  172. 

by  the  blowpipe, 

Schreibersite,  297. 

200. 

o 

Schweinfurt  green,  581. 

Quantitative  analysis,  371. 
Juartz,  302.  306. 
Juercite,  465. 

o. 

Saccharimetry,  471. 
chemical  method, 

Scorodite,  273. 
Scouring  rush,  559. 
Seal  oil,  176. 

5uicklime,  580. 

472. 

Sea-weed,  559. 

Juinia,  580. 

median,  method, 

Sebaceous  matter,  525. 

Juinidin,  174. 
juinin,  174,  175. 

472.                       Sedge,  559. 
physical  method,   Seed,  various,  oil  in,  576. 

R' 

476. 
Scheibler's  meth- 

Seeds and  fruits  of  trees,  560. 
grains  of  agricul- 

• 

od,  474. 

tural  plants,  560. 

[Rape,  559. 

Saccharometer,  477. 

Selenium,  at.  wt.,  2,  6,  549. 

cake,  557. 

Sahlite,  302. 

before    the   blow- 

green, young,  557. 

Salalembroth,  581. 

pipe,  197,  200. 

seed,  560. 

Salammoniac,  581. 

discovered  by,  2. 

Rape-seed  oil,  176,  178. 

Salenixum,  581. 

discovered  in,  2. 

Raspberries,  572. 
Ratsbane,  antidote  for,  595. 
law-sugar  analysis,  479. 
Realgar,  246,  247. 
fled  precipitate,  antidote  for, 

Salgem,  583. 
Saliva,  529,  530. 
Saltpetre,  581. 
Salprunella,  581. 
Salt  cake,  581. 

films,  198. 
melting-point,  6. 
specific  gravity,  6. 
specific  heat,  7. 
Semen,  543. 

of  sorrel,  581. 

Senarmonite,  244. 

deduction  of  compounds,  363. 

Salts,  deportment  of,  with  re- 

Sepiolite, 306. 

Reed,  5^9. 
Refraction,  1,89. 
Refuse,  analysis  of  ash,  569. 
Remingtonite,  261. 

agents    13. 
old  name  for,  590. 
Scale  of  hardness,  350. 
Scheele's  green,  581. 

Serpentine,  306. 
Sesame  oil,  176,  178. 
Sheathing  metal,  composition 
of,  587- 

Rhodium,  at.  wt.,  3,  s?  549. 

antidote  for, 

Sheehte,  250. 

deport,    with    re- 

595. 

Siderite,  273,  282. 

agents,  166. 
discovered  by,  3. 

Scheibler's  method,  474. 
Scheme  for  Group    1,    13. 

Silica  bef.  the  blowpipe,  107. 
Silicic  acid,  152. 

discovered  in,  3. 

II,   42. 

Silicon,  atomic  weight,  3,  6. 

melting-point,  5. 

HI,  113. 

detection  of,  200. 

price  of,  556. 
specific  gravity,  5. 
Rhodium  gold,  270. 

IV,  I27. 
V,  137. 
for  anal,  of  blood,  447. 

discovered  by,  3. 
discovered  in,  3. 
minerals,  302. 

Rhodochrosite,  290. 
Rhodomite,  303.    - 

for  anal  of  clay,  423. 
for  anal,  of  coal,  421. 

specific  gravity,  3. 
specific  heat,  7. 

Rice,  analysis  of  ash,  570. 

for  anal,  of  copper  ore, 

Silver,  i3; 

husked,  560. 

393. 

at.  weight,  i,  4,  549. 

with  husk,  560. 

for  anal,  of  dolomite, 

before  the    blowpipe, 

Rochelle  salts,  580. 

399- 

17,  196,  197,  200. 

Root  crops,  anal,  of  ash,  560. 

for  anal,  of  fertilizers, 

characterist.  reactions, 

leaves  and  stems 

403. 

17. 

of,  560. 
Roots  and  tubers,  568. 
Rosaniline,  580. 

for  anal,  of  glass,  425. 
for  anal,  of  gunpow- 
der, 424. 

deportment   with   re- 
agents, 13.  158. 
detection  of,  27. 

Rotatory   power   of  sugars, 

for  anal,  of  ilmenite, 

melting-point,  6,  13. 

4?6. 

397. 

metallic,  14. 

[Rubidium,  at.  wt.,  i,  5,  549. 

for  anal,  of  iron  ore, 

oxides  of,  13. 

deportment    with 

373- 

minerals  017321. 

reagents,  154. 

for  anal,  of  milk,  457. 

native,32i. 

detection,  i. 

for  anal,  of  natrolite, 

price  ofj  556. 

discovered  by,  i. 

397. 

salts,  14. 

discovered  in,  i. 

for  anal,  of  nickel  ore, 

specific  gravity,  6,  13. 

melting-point,  55. 

392. 

specific  heat,  7. 

INDEX. 


623 


Silver  and  gold  assay,  494. 

Specific  gr.  of  solids  heavier 

Sugars,  raw,  anal,  of  479,  480, 

assay     proper, 
506. 

than      water, 
208. 

rotatory    power     of, 

476. 

crucible  assay, 

sulphuric  acid, 

water  determination, 

494  • 
meth.  of  calcula- 

225. 
Twaddle,  215. 

483. 
Sulphur,  at.  wt.,  2,  6,  549. 

ting    charges, 

vapors,  200. 

before    the    blow- 

496. 
Silver  and  gold  scorification 

Specific  heats  of  compounds, 
8,  9,  10. 

pipe,  197,  200. 
Sulphur,  detection  of,  147. 

assay,  499. 
Silver  com,  analyses  of,  402. 

table  of,  7,  8,  9, 

10. 

melting-point,  6. 
native,  330. 

analysis  of,  402. 
Skimmed  milk,  460. 
Slag,  analysis  of,  373,  387. 
Smaltite,  261. 

gravities,  table  of,  4, 
5,  6. 
Speculum,  587. 
Spelt,  559. 

specific  gravity,  6. 
specific  heat,  7. 
Sulphuric  acid,  147. 
antidote     for, 

Smithsonite,  332,  334. 

winter,  559. 

595. 

Soap  test,  418. 
Soapstone,  581. 

with  husk,  560. 
Spelter,  581. 

.               sp.  gr.  of,  225. 
Sylvamte,  270. 

Soda,  antidote  for,  596. 

Sperm  oil,  176. 

nitre,  325. 

Spessartite,  303. 

• 

Sodic  hydrate,  sp.  gravity  of, 

Sphalerite,  332,  333. 

T. 

230. 
Sodium,  at.  weight,  i,  549. 
before  the  blowpipe, 

Spinel,  287,  288. 
Spirits  of  hartshorn,  antidote 
for,  596. 

Table  of  ammonia,  135. 
analytical      chem., 
154-169. 

197. 
characteristic    reac- 

Spodamene, 303. 
Stannite,  330. 

city  waters,  421. 
defunct     elements, 

tion,  133. 

Stas-otto's  scheme,  172. 

554. 

deportment  with  re- 

Staurolite, 305. 

cor.  in  cupellation, 

agents,  131,  154. 

Stearin,  581. 

505. 

detection,  137. 
discovered  by,  i. 

Steatite,  581. 
Stelbite,  306. 

cor.  of  temperature 
in  sugars,  482. 

discovered  in,  i. 

Stephanite,  321,  324. 

for    Duboscq    sac- 

melting-point,  6. 

Stibnite,  244,  245. 

charometer,  483. 

minerals  of,  325. 
oxides,  131. 

Stcichiometry,  353. 
Stolzite,  284. 

for    Ventzke     sac- 
charometer,  482. 

price  of,  556. 
salts,  132. 

Straw,  559. 
anal,  of  ash,  563,  564,  567. 

hydrocarbons  from 
essential  oils,  183. 

specific  gravity,  6. 
specific  neat,  6. 
Solanin,  175. 
Soldering,  fluxes  for,  588. 

flax,  559. 
Strawberries,  anal,  of,  572. 
Strontianite,  328,  329. 
Strontium,  at.  weight,  i,  6. 

hydrocarbons,    op- 
tical     properties 
of,  183. 
hydrocarbons,    sp. 

Solders,s88. 
Soleil    Duboscq    saccharom- 

before   the    blow- 
pipe, 197. 

gr.  of,  183. 
official     tests,    for 

eter,  477. 

characteristic    re- 

impur.   in    phar- 

Solids,  expansion  of,  602. 

actions,  121. 

macopceial  prep- 

determination  of  sp. 

deport,    with    re- 

arations, 185. 

gr.,  207,  208. 

agents,  118,  154. 

oils,  180. 

dilatation  of,  602. 
Solubilities,  table  of,  360. 

detection,  127. 
discovered  by,  i. 

optical  prop,  of  es- 
sential oils,  182. 

of,  notes,  362. 

discovered  in,  i. 

showing   the    con- 

Solutions, boiling-points,  603. 

melting-point,  6. 

stituents  sought, 

Sorghum,  560. 
Sorbin,  464. 

minerals,  328. 
oxides,  118. 

solubilities,  360. 

rotatory  power,  476. 
Specific    gravity   determina- 
tion, 207. 
acetic  acid,  231. 

price  of,  556. 
salts.  119. 
specific  gravity,  6. 
specific  heat,  7. 

sp.  gr.  and  weights, 
235. 
sp.    gr.    of   acetic 
acid,  231. 

ammonic     hy- 
drate, 227. 
Baum6,  214,215. 

Strychnia,  581. 
Strychnine,  173,  175. 
antidote  for,  598. 

sp.  gr.  of  alcohol, 
216,  217,  218. 
sp.  gr.  of  ammonia, 

ether,  226. 

Substances     absorbed,    etc., 

227. 

gases,  209. 

542. 

sp.  gr.  of  Baum6, 

glycerine,  232. 
hydrochl.  acid, 

Sucrose,  462,  466,  581. 
Sugar,  462,  586. 

214,  215. 
sp.  gr.  of  ether,  226. 

219. 

beets,  anal,  of,  470. 

sp.  gr.  of  glycerine, 

nitric  acid,  220. 

Guadaloupe,  anal,  of, 

232. 

official     liquid, 
232. 

466. 
in  fruits,  577. 

sp.    gr.    of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  219. 

phosphor,  acid, 
223, 

Martinique,    anal,   of, 

466. 

sp.    gr.    of    nitric 
acid,  220. 

potassic       hy- 

Mauritius, anal,  of,  466. 

sp.  gr.  of  oils,  182. 

drate,  229. 

molasses,  anal,  of,  469. 

sp.    gr.    of    phos- 

powders, 207. 

ultimate  anal,  of,  431. 

phoric  acid,  223. 

sodic    hydrate, 
230. 
small       solids. 

Sugar-cane,  466,  471. 
Sugars,  ash  determ.,  485. 
effect    on    polarized 

sp.  gr.  of  potassic 
hydrate,  229. 
sp.  gr.  of  sodic  hy- 

207. 

light,  476. 

drate,  230. 

624 


INDEX. 


Table  of  sp.  gr.  of  sulphuric 

Tin,  equivalent  of  atoms,  3. 

v. 

acid,  225. 

film,  198. 

sp.  gr.  of  Twaddle, 

melting-point,  6. 

Valentinite,  244. 

%I5- 

metallic,  58. 

Vanadium,  at.  wt.,  2,  6,  549. 

time  at  dif.  places, 

minerals,  330. 

deportment  with 

613. 

oxides,  57. 

reagents,  158. 

volatile      elements 

salts,  59,  61. 

discovered  by,  2. 

that    can    be    re- 

specific gravity,  6. 

discovered  in,  2. 

duced    as    films, 

specific  heat,  7. 

melting-point,  6. 

198. 

Titanic  acid,  del.  of,  377. 

price  of,  556. 

Talc,  305,  319. 
Tantalium,    atomic    weight, 

Titanite,  305. 
Titanium,  atomic  weight  of, 

spec,  gravity,  6. 
specific  heat,  7. 

2,6. 

3<  6.  549- 

Vapors,  sp.  gravity  of,  210. 

discovered  by,  2. 

before   the   blow- 

Veratrin, 172,  175. 

discovered  in,  2. 

pipe,  196. 

Verdigris,  antidote  for,  596. 

melting-point,  6. 
price  of,  556. 

deportment    with 
reagents,  166. 

Vermilion  :  antidote  for,  596. 
Versuviamte,  303. 

spec,  gravity,  6. 

discovered  by,  3. 

Vetches,  557,  560. 

specific  heat,  6. 
Tartar  emetic,  581. 

discovered  in,  3. 
melting-point,  6. 

Vivianite,  273. 
Volatile  elements,  198. 

antidote  for,  597. 

ore,  anal,  of,  397. 

Tartaric  acid,  153. 

price  of,  556. 

"W. 

Tea,  analysis  ot  ash,  569. 
Tears,  526. 

specific  gravity,  6. 
Toadstools,  antidote  for,  595. 

Wad,  290,  293. 

Teeth,  538. 

Tobacco,  559. 

Wallastonite,  302. 

Telescope  mirrors,  587. 

Toluol,  581. 

Walnut,  autumn,  560. 

Tellurium,  atomic  weight,  2, 

Topaz,  305,  318. 

cake,  558. 

6,  549. 

Tourmaline,  304. 

spring,  560. 

betore  the  blow- 

Train oil,  178. 

Water  analysis,  404. 

pipe,  196. 

Trautwine's  tables  of  sp.  gr., 

detection  ot,  200. 

deportment   with 

235. 

mineral  anal,  of,  411. 

reagents,  166. 

Trehalose,  463. 

min.,  anal.,  405. 

discovered  by,  2. 

Tremolite,  303. 

baryta  &  stron- 

discovered  in,  2. 

Triolein,  581. 

tia  in,  407. 

films,  198. 

Triplite,  290. 

calculating  re- 

melting-point, 6. 

Tristearin,  581. 

sults,  410. 

price  of,  556. 

Tubers,  568. 

iodine  and  bro- 

specific gravity,  6. 
specific  heat,  7. 

Tungsten,  at.  weight,  3,  6. 
before  the    blow- 

mine in,  409. 
iron  in,  407. 

Temper,  comp.  of,  587. 

pipe,  196. 

lithia  in,  408. 

Temperatures,     remarkable, 

deportment     with 

phosphoric  acid 

602. 

reagents,  166. 

in,  407. 

Tennantite,  263. 

discovered  in  3. 

potable,  anal,  of,  420, 

Tetradymite,  248. 
Tetrahedrite,  263. 
Textile  plants,  559,  564. 
Thallium,  atomic  weight,  i,  6, 

discovered  by,  3. 
melting-point,  6. 
specific  gravity,  6. 
Turnbull's  Blue,  580. 

421. 
potable  analysis,  412. 
pot.  anal.,  ammonia  in, 
416,  419. 

549. 

Turnip-seed,  560. 

nitrates  and  ni- 

deportment with  re- 
agents, 166. 

Turnips,  558. 
Type  and  stereotype  plates, 

trites,  414.  419. 
nitric    acid   in, 

discovered  by  i. 

587. 

417. 

discovered  in,  i. 

metal,  analyses  of,  402. 

organic  carbon, 

melting-point,  6. 
price  of,  556. 
specific  gravity,  6. 

analysis,  401. 
Turquois,  242. 
Twaddle,  sp.  gravity,  215. 

412. 
organic  matter, 
415- 

Thenardite,  325. 

soap  test,  418. 

Thermometers,  598. 
Thorium,  atomic  weight,  3,  6. 

U. 

Waterlite,  242. 
Weights  and  measures,  605. 

deport,     with     re- 

Ulmanite, 295. 

Wernerite,  304. 

agents,  154. 
discovered  by  3. 

Ultimate  analysis,  431. 
Uranium,  atomic  weight,  3, 

Wheat,  559- 
analysis  of  ash,  590. 

discovered  in,  3. 

6,  549. 

bran,  558. 

melting-point,  6. 

before    the   blow- 

flour, fine,  558. 

specific  gravity,  6. 
Time  at  different  places,  613. 

pipe,  196. 
deportment     with 

winter,  559. 
winter,  heading  out, 

Timothy  hay,  557. 
Tin,  assay  of,  514. 

reagents,  166. 
discovered  b\T,  3. 

£57,  56o. 
winter,  m  flower,  557. 

atomic  weight  of.  3,  6. 

discovered  in,  3. 

White  lead  analysis,  400. 

before  the  blowpipe,  60, 

melting-point,  6. 

metal,  402,  585. 

197,  200. 

price  of,  556. 

precipitate,      antidote 

characteristic  reactions, 

salts,  194. 

for,  596. 

60. 

specific  gravity,  6. 

Whortleberries,  573. 

deport,   with    reagents, 
56,  61,  158. 

Urea,  S84. 
Urine,  540. 

Willemite,  303. 
Williamson's  blue,  582. 

detection,  71. 
discovered  by,  3. 

analyses  of,  455,  456. 
analysis,  450,  541. 

Wine  grounds,  558. 
Wood  and  coal,  composition 

discovered  in,  3. 

Heller's  analysis,  541. 

of,  338. 

INDEX. 

Wood,  analyses  of  ash,  561, 

Z. 

565. 

change  of,  339. 
durability  of,  342. 
Wolfenite,  284. 

Zarratite,  295. 
Zettnow's  scheme,  170. 
Zinc,  analyses  of,  395. 

Wolframite,  273. 

at.  weight,  2,  6,  549. 
before    the    blow  pipe, 

87,  197,  200. 

Y. 

blende,  anal,  of,  395. 

Yyttrium,  atomic  weight,  2, 

6,  549- 

char,  reactions,  196. 
deportment    with     re- 

deportment   with 

agents,  84,  162. 

reagents,  154. 

detection,  113. 

detection,  154. 
discovered  by,  2. 

discovered  by,  2. 
discovered  in,  2. 

discovered  in,  2. 

film,  198. 

melting-point,  6. 
specific  gravity,  6. 

melting-point,  6. 
metallic,  84. 

625 


Zinc,  minerals,  332. 

ore  analysis,  394. 
oxides,  84. 
price  of,  556. 
salts,  86,  194. 
specific  gravity,  6. 
specific  neat  of,  7. 
Zincite,  332. 
Zircon,  303,  335. 
Zirconium,  at.  weight,  3,  549. 
deportment'  witn 

reagents,  154. 
discovered  by,  3. 
discovered  in,  3. 
melting-point,  6. 
minerals,  335. 
spec,  gravity,  6. 
Zylol,  581. 


-  >  y.  i  - 
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